58
the forestomach tumors to human risk assessment for low, non-irritating doses such as those
associated with a potential impurity is highly questionable.
Forestomach tumors in rodents have been the subject of much discussion in assessment of risk to
humans. With non-mutagenic chemicals, it is recognized that after oral gavage administration,
inflammation and irritation related to high concentrations of test materials in contact with the
forestomach can lead to hyperplasia and ultimately tumors. Material introduced by gavage can
remain for some time in the rodent forestomach before discharge to the glandular stomach, in
contrast to the rapid passage through the human esophagus. Such tumor induction is not relevant
to humans at non-irritating doses. The same inflammatory and hyperplastic effects are also seen
with mutagenic chemicals, where it is more complex to determine relative contribution to mode of
action of these non-mutagenic, high-dose effects compared with direct mutation induction.
However, often a strong case can be made for site-of-contact tumorigenesis that is only relevant at
concentrations that cause irritation/inflammation, potentially with secondary mechanisms of
damage. Cell proliferation is expected to play an important role in tumor development such that
there is a non-linear dose response and the forestomach (or other site-of-contact) tumors are not
relevant to low-dose human exposure.
Proctor et al (Ref. 11) proposed a systematic approach to evaluating relevance of forestomach
tumors in cancer risk assessment, taking into account whether any known genotoxicity is
potentially relevant to human tissues (this would include whether a compound is genotoxic in vivo),
whether tumors after oral administration of any type are specific to forestomach, and whether
tumors are observed only at doses that irritate the forestomach or exceed the MTD.
As described above and in the table, benzyl chloride predominantly induces tumors at the site-of-
contact in rats and mice following exposure to high doses by gavage (forestomach tumors), by
injection (injection site sarcoma) and by topical application in a skin tumor initiation-promotion
model in sensitive Sencar mice. An OECD report in the Screening Information Dataset (SIDS) for
high volume chemicals describes benzyl chloride as intensely irritating to skin, eyes, and mucous
membranes in acute and repeat dose studies (Ref. 12). Groups of 10 Fischer 344 rats of both
sexes died within 2-3 weeks from severe acute and chronic gastritis of the forestomach, often with
ulcers, following oral administration 3 times/week of doses > 250 mg/kg for males and >125
mg/kg for females (Ref. 4). Proliferative changes observed in female rats at lower doses included
hyperplasia of the forestomach (62 mg/kg), and hyperkeratosis of the forestomach (30 mg/kg).
The incidence of forestomach tumors was high in mice in the carcinogenicity study, and Lijinsky et
al (Ref. 4) also observed non-neoplastic lesions in the forestomach of the rat in the subchronic
range-finding study, but few forestomach neoplasms developed in the rat carcinogenicity assay.
Due to the steepness of the dose-response curve and the difficulty establishing the MTD for rats,
the author speculates that it was possible that the dose used in the rat study was marginally too
low to induce a significant carcinogenic effect in rats.
In the case of benzyl chloride, other tumor types were discussed as possibly treatment-related
besides those at the site-of-contact. In the mouse oral bioassay, Lijinsky characterized the
carcinogenic effects other than forestomach tumors as “marginal”, comprising an increase of
endothelial neoplasms in males, alveolar-bronchiolar neoplasms of the lungs only in female mice
(neither of these is statistically significant) and hepatocellular neoplasms only in low dose male
mice (this tumor type was discounted as not dose related). It is of note that OECD SIDS (Ref. 12)
reports observations of severe to moderate dose-related liver hyperplasia in a 26-week oral toxicity
study in mice.
Statistically significant increases were reported in hemangiomas/hemangiosarcomas of the
circulatory system in the male mice (TD
50
454 mg/kg/day), and in thyroid C-cell adenomas or