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Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy
ISSN: 1740-8989 (Print) 1742-5786 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cpes20
Implementing formative assessment in primary
physical education: teacher perspectives and
experiences
Déirdre Ní Chróinín & Caitríona Cosgrave
To cite this article: Déirdre Ní Chróinín & Caitríona Cosgrave (2013) Implementing formative
assessment in primary physical education: teacher perspectives and experiences, Physical
Education and Sport Pedagogy, 18:2, 219-233, DOI: 10.1080/17408989.2012.666787
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2012.666787
Published online: 18 May 2012.
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Implementing formative assessment in primary physical education:
teacher perspectives and experiences
De
´
irdre Nı
´
Chro
´
inı
´
n
a
∗
and Caitrı
´
ona Cosgrave
b
a
Arts Education and Physical Education, Mary Immaculate College, University of Limerick, South
Circular Road, Limerick, Ireland;
b
Marino Institute of Education, Cola
´
iste Mhuire, Griffith
Avenue, Dublin, Ireland
(Received 4 January 2011; final version received 2 December 2011)
Background: Incorporating assessment as a regular practice can enhance teaching and
learning in primary physical education. However, there is little evidence to suggest
primary teachers use assessment strategies regularly in their physical education classes.
Purpose: To explore the impact of incorporating assessment into primary teachers’
physical education practices on (a) their perspectives on assessment and (b) teaching
and learning in primary physical education.
Methodology: Primary teachers in Limerick (n ¼ 2) and Dublin (n ¼ 3) participated in
initial focus group interviews exploring practices and understandings of assessment in
physical education. Each teacher then planned and delivered a series of lessons where
assessment was considered in relation to the learning intentions. Their experiences
were captured using reflective journals (Limerick) and a mid-point focus group
interview (Dublin). Both groups of teachers participated in a third focus group
interview after lessons were completed. Qualitative analysis by both researchers
involved individual coding of the data using the constant comparison method
followed by conversations on alignment of findings. Trustworthiness of the data was
addressed using peer debriefing techniques.
Findings: The inclusion of assessment in physical education lessons provided structure
and focus to the planning, teaching and learning processes and impacted positively on
both teacher learning and the children’s learning. The assessment strategies focused
the learners, allowed for feedback related to assessment criteria and informed future
planning. Challenges for the teachers included the amount of time needed to plan,
difficulty in accessing sample assessments and differentiating assessments for
different class levels and abilities.
Conclusion: The use of assessment strategies enhanced the quality of teaching and
learning in physical education and impacted positively on the teachers’ and learners’
perceptions of physical education. The importance of supporting teachers, through
provision of information on assessment strategies and samples of assessment
strategies aligned with content in physical education to enhance their everyday
practice, is highlighted.
Keywords: primary/elementary; physical education; assessment; formative
# 2013 Association for Physical Education
∗
Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 2013
Vol. 18, No. 2, 219 –233, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2012.666787
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Introduction
Assessment in the primary school
Assessment is defined as ‘the process of gathering, recording, interpreting, using and report-
ing information about a child’s progress and achievements in developing knowledge, skills
and attitudes’ (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) 2007, 7). Assess-
ment has become central to efforts which seek to impact and improve on children’s learning
in schools (Elwood 2006) and specifically in primary school contexts (Conner 1999; Wragg
2001). Assessment involves a variety of practices ranging from formative to summative
assessment techniques which include consideration of Assessment for Learning (AfL)
and Assessment of Learning (AoL) (Black 2005; Black et al. 2003; Cousins et al. 2004).
AfL can occur at all stages of the learning process where a teacher uses evidence on an
ongoing basis to support teaching and learning. AoL is often separate from the teaching
and learning process and falls within a measurement paradigm which focuses on more
formal external examinations (Torrance and Pryer 1998). Formative assessment is
defined as ‘frequent, interactive assessments of student progress and understanding to ident-
ify learning needs and adjust teaching appropriately’ (Centre for Educational Research and
Innovation (CERI) 2005, 21). This paper includes consideration of a range of formative
assessment strategies (including some aspects of AfL) selected and used by primary tea-
chers during their physical education classes.
Primary schools in Ireland are required to have an assessment policy in order to record
and report children’s progress (Education Act 1998). The Irish Primary School Curriculum
(1999) recognises that assessment is an integral part of the teaching and learning process
that can help identify what the child is learning as well as how the child is learning (Gov-
ernment of Ireland 1999a). Within an Irish context, a combination of formative and summa-
tive assessment, using a wide range of assessment strategies, is recommended at the primary
level (NCCA 2007) with specific guidelines provided on the use of teacher observation,
teacher designed tasks and curriculum profiles in physical education (Government of
Ireland 1999a, 1999b). However, reviews of overall primary curriculum implementation
(NCCA 2005, 2008) highlight that teachers have difficulty finding time to assess in an
‘overloaded’ curriculum and have particular difficulty assessing in some practical areas.
The NCCA (2007) published detailed guidelines on assessment to support primary teachers
which highlight the importance of using a range of assessment strategies. The extent to
which Irish primary teachers are using the guidelines is unclear at present. Although
these guidelines were distributed to schools, there has been no formal national follow-up
initiative to support the continuing professional development of teachers to use these guide-
lines in their teaching. This seems to reflect Hall and Kavanagh’s (2002) criticism that the
current curriculum assessment policy has been too reliant on both teacher knowledge of and
teacher willingness to use good assessment procedures without the radical programme of
teacher development required to sustain it.
Assessment in physical education
Assessment is recognised as a key part of the teaching and learning cycle in physical edu-
cation contexts (Frapwell 2010; Lund 1992; Matanin and Tannehill 1994; Melograno 1997;
Rink 1993; Siedentop and Tannehill 2000; Wright and Van Der Mars 2004). Assessment in
physical education can be used as a measure of accountability whereby children, parents,
colleagues and other members of society are informed as to the appropriateness and effec-
tiveness of an education programme or unit of work (Bailey 2001). Hay (2006) emphasises
the interdependence of assessment, curriculum and pedagogy where evaluation and
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analysis of the rate and level of children’s learning in physical education can help to inform
and make future teaching more effective, thus creating learning experiences that are more
valuable for children (Pickup and Price 2007; Piotrowski 2000). In this way, assessment
helps guide teachers in their instruction so that they can adjust their planning to see what
the children need to learn (Wright and Van Der Mars 2004). Frapwell (2010) emphasises
the importance of placing the learner at the centre of the assessment process and the assess-
ment providing a view of the whole child. The use of assessment strategi es can make learn-
ing more enjoyable and challenging for the children (Hopple 2005; Schiemer 2000) and
can enhance learner motivation (Brooks and Brooks 1993). Cassady, Clarke, and Latham
(2004) emphasise the role of evaluation in increasing students’ awareness of their
own learning and progress. They highlight the importance of including children in
decision-making around the assessment process to ensure it is a positive and worthwhile
experience.
Physical education contexts can, however, provide particular assessment challenges for
teachers. These include the difficulties of assessing learning in the affective domain,
measuring effort and judging actions and incidences which by their very nature are transi-
tory and fleeting (Bailey 2001; Piotrowski 2000). Morgan and Hansen (2007) highlight lack
of content knowledge as a further significant barrier to primary teachers assessing in phys-
ical education. Locke and Graber (2008) outline that some areas such as motor skill learning
and physical activity levels are easier to assess than other learning areas and emphasise the
necessity of teacher expertise to use a range of assessment strategies effectively. Plant
(2007) concurs that many practitioners get assessment ‘horribly wrong’ in physical edu-
cation by focusing on summative assessments only at the end of a unit of work which
focuses solely on the child’s ability to perfect a skill, e.g. the ability to perform a
forward roll proficiently. Johnson (2008) highlights the difficulties that can arise when tea-
chers make subjective judgements relating to attendance, effort and attitude in lessons with
poor use of assessment criteria which tell little about the student’s learning. These studies
suggest that teachers need a detailed framework for learning and progression in physical
education, wh ich contains key achievement indicators in various areas of children’s devel-
opment in physical education (Piotrowski 2000).
Assessment strategies in physical education have received unprecedented attention in
the past decade (Frapwell 2010; Locke and Graber 2008). Policy developers, teachers
and researchers have developed a range of assessment strategies to support teachers’
AoL in physical education (Schiemer 2000). These strategies include the use of rubrics
and standardised tests that are largely linked to progra mme evaluation and to some national
standards (Frapwell 2010; National Association for Sport and Physical Education 2004;
Schiemer 2000). Locke and Graber (2008) suggest that the ultimate impacts of these devel-
opments are yet unknown. While the evidence of the impact of formative assessment strat-
egies to enhance learning is overwhelming (Black and Wiliam 1998; Wiliam et al. 2004),
research on the impact of formativ e assessment in physical education is relatively limited
(Hay 2006). Research on the impact of assessment strategies in a post-primary physical
education context suggests that use of formative assessment strategies can impact positively
on teaching and learning in physical education (Hay 2006; MacPhail and Halbert 2010).
The level of engagement of primary teachers with assessment strategies and the effec-
tiveness of these strategies are largely unknown. Rink et al. (2007) found that teachers were
supportive and engaged positively with an assessment initiative in physical education
which was linked to state standards in the USA. Rink et al.’s findings, like many assessment
initiatives, were linked to an accountability agenda (Hay 2006). Morgan and Hansen (2007)
suggest that primary teachers find assessment the most difficult aspect of their role and the
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area in which they felt least competent. They found that primary teachers feared that the
imposition of assessment in physical education would force undesired accountability,
turning physical education into something negative that would be perceived as ‘work’. A
combination of these factors resulted in assessment in primary physical education being
avoided. These teachers also suggested that they would need extensive support and gui-
dance to learn how to assess effectively in physical education.
In Ireland, physical education is taught by generalist primary teachers who undertake
either a BEd or postgraduate diploma in primary teaching. The physical education com-
ponent of the programmes consists of 30–48 h of small group teaching with emphasis
on the content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge through practical engage-
ment. Assessment strategies, specific to physical education, are addressed within these pro-
grammes. Despite this, there is little evidence to suggest that assessment strategies are
widely used in primary school physical education in Ireland. Research has highlighted
the importance of addressing assessment practices with teachers in pre-service contexts
(Karp and Woods 2008) and in teacher development contexts (Patton and Griffin 2008).
This study explored the experiences of primary teachers using formative assessment to
enhance teaching and learning in their physical education classes. This paper examines
the benefits and challenges experienced by these teachers when they used assessment in
primary physical education contexts and considers the support neede d to facilitate and
encourage the regular use of assessment in primary physical education.
Methods
Research context and participants
Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee in
St Margaret’s College (pseudonym). Each teacher volunteered to participate in the study
and written informed consent was obtained. A convenient sample of five female generalist
primary teachers, who were involved in taught (Dublin, n ¼ 3) and research-based (Lim-
erick, n ¼ 2) postgraduate studies in physical education, participated in this study. It is
important to acknowledge that the views and experiences of the sample reflect a cohort
of primary teachers who have a high level of knowledge and motivation towards the
subject which may not reflect the general population.
Initial focus group interviews sought to provide descriptive information on the teachers
and physical education within their school context. The teachers were all less than 40 years
of age and had teaching experience ranging from 1 to 14 years. Four of the teachers were
teaching in urban city settings and one was based in a small town. The teachers were based
in mixed- and single-gender schools and taught in a range of classes from junior infants to
sixth class (5 – 12 years approximately). All five teachers were based in schools that were
supportive of physical education and where physical education was taught regularly. Plan-
ning in physical education was for the most part left to the individual teacher and, where
school physical education plans existed, they were not regularly consulted. The teachers
in this study all strived to deliver a broad and balanced curriculum. However, reflecting
national trends, teachers were most comfortable delivering the games strand (Fahey,
Delaney, and Gannon 2005; MacPhail, O’Sullivan, and Halbert 2008; Woods et al.
2010). All the teachers reported that the children in their classes looked forward to partici-
pating in physical education lessons. The teachers described how formal assessment within
their schools included formal literacy and numeracy tests, maths and spelling tests on a
Friday and an end of year report. The teachers described how they were involved in
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informal assessment on a regular basis within their own classes where they would ‘jot down
notes’. They were aware that much of their work did include assessment: ‘I think we had
been doing it all along but it wasn’t written down in a folder as assessment or people
didn’t notice it as much ... I just think it’s becoming more formalised’ (T4, interview 1).
They viewed ‘finding the gaps’ (T2, interview 1) as the main purpose of assessment.
Although they suggested that assessment should be reported to parents, the children them-
selves, other teachers and the principal, this did not always occur in practice. Assessment in
physical education was based primarily on teacher observation of ‘he can do it/she can’t do
it’ related to skill learning. Some of the teachers described ‘jotting down notes’ (T1, inter-
view 1) at the end of physical education classes. In terms of end of year reports, the teachers
all tick a physical education box and this normally concerns whether a child participated or
not in class: ‘I know from just chatting to various teachers and in the reports it would just be
“do they participate?” and that would kind of be it’ (T5, interview 1).
Data collection
Initial focus group interviews (interview 1) were conducted with both the Limerick and the
Dublin groups to capture their physical education and school contexts and to explore prac-
tices and understandings of assessment in physical education. Interview 1 included a com-
bination of descriptive questions to access the general background of each teacher and
school and open-ended questions (Creswell 2009). Areas addressed in open-ended ques-
tions included whole school and class policies regarding the teaching of physical education,
general assessment practices in the school and individual class and practices and perspec-
tives of assessment in physical education. Each interview lasted 1 –1.5 h and took place in a
setting convenient to participants (a school in one case and a college in the other). Focus
group interviews were chosen as the topic lent itself to a discussion within a small group
format to support rich and varied data (Flick 2002) and allowed participants to highlight
issues that they deemed important. Emphasis was placed on joint construction of
meaning (Bryman 2008; Kvale and Brinkmann 2009).
Each teacher then planned and delivered a series of lessons (approximately six to eight
lessons) based on the Primary Schools’ Sports Initiative (PSSI) lesson plans which are
support materials aligned with the content of the Irish primary physical education curricu-
lum. For each lesson, the teachers selected written/verbal assessment strategies, including
teacher-led, peer and self-assessment strategies, aligned with content to examine different
aspects of the children’s learning (see the Appendix). All the teachers did not use all the
strategies. Teachers in the study were not directed or prescribed to use any particular assess-
ment strategies. Use of technology was not employed to support assessmen t strategies.
Their decisions were supported by their study of physical education within their postgradu-
ate programme which included examination of exemplars and sample assessment tools for
physical education. For example, teacher 5 (T5) used conferencing and journaling with her
class (age 9–10 approximately) where this would not have been appropriate for teacher 2
(T2) who was teaching children age 5–6 years. A member of the research team acted as a
contact support to both the Dublin and Limerick teachers to advise them on the application
of selected tools. All teachers were encouraged by the support contact to share the learning
intention and the criteria for success using the WALT (We are learning to ...) and WILF
(What I’m looking for ...) framework (NCCA 2007) in relation to each lesson.
The two teachers involved in research-based postgraduate studies recorded their experi-
ences in a reflective journal format through responding to a series of prompt questions includ-
ing: What went well and why?, What would you do differently and why? and Did the
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assessment make a difference to teaching and learning? It was intended that the journal would
prompt reflection on the process of using assessment in their teaching (Spalding and Wilson
2002) as well as capturing their experiences in a developmental way from their perspective.
The three teachers involved in taught postgraduate studies did not complete a reflective
journal. This decision was made by the research team as it was felt inappropriate to increase
the workload of these teachers, taking into account the other requirements of the participants’
taught postgraduate programme. Instead, a mid-point focus group interview (interview 2)
was used to capture their experiences in an effort to address this gap and provide insight
into the teachers’ experiences. In this mid-point focus group, the participants were prompted
to consider the successes and drawbacks of using the assessment strategies as well as the
impact on teaching and learning. The reflective journal data provided immediacy to the
experience as the journals were completed directly after each lesson was taught. Therefore,
the journals provided a richness and depth that was not evident in the mid-point interview.
While it would be desirable for all teachers to have completed a journal during the
process, the experiences of the two teachers who did complete the journals provide us
with valuable detail and insight. The study may have been strengthened through the use of
field observations to provide further insight on teachers’ perspectives. All teachers partici-
pated in a final focus group interview (interview 3) after the lessons were completed.
Data analysis
Focus group and reflective jo urnal data were organised and analysed qualitatively through
reading and rereading using constant comparison (Miles and Huberman 1994). As a first
step, the researchers individually read through of all the interviews and noted main ideas
being discussed and emphasised by participants (Creswell 2009). By unit ising the data
through an initial coding process (Charmaz 2006), chunks or units of meaning began to
emerge (Lincoln and Guba 1985). Following more focused incident coding, codes were
combined and compared and a list of main categories was compiled (Charmaz 2006).
Each transcript was re-examined by both researchers individually against these ideas and
compared across transcripts to examine similarities and differences. Key ideas within
each of these categories were aligned with the research questions to support construction
of the argument. The reflective journals of the two Limerick participants were then exam-
ined. This allowed for triangulation of themes from the focus group data as well as provid-
ing further insight and illustration of these themes. Aspects present in the reflective journals
but not evident in the focus group interviews were also considered, though findings were in
the most part consistent. Trustworthiness of the data was addressed using peer debriefi ng
techniques. This involved two other members of the overall project team in independent
analysis of a portion of the pre- and post-focus group interview data alongside the reflective
journal entries following the same procedures as the main researchers. These researchers
had no access to the findings of the two main researchers and presented their findings to
the overall research team on the same day as the two main researchers presented their find-
ings. The overall research team explored and discussed the two sets of findings. While the
findings were similar, this convers ation provided an opportunity to explore, challenge and
extend interpretations within the data.
Findings and discussion
The teachers’ experiences of using planned and structured assessments are presented below
and the key benefits and challenges are discussed in relation to: (1) Overall impact, (2)
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Teacher learning, (3) Structure and focus for planning, teaching and learning, (4) Support-
ing teachers’ future engagement with assessment. The implications of their experiences are
considered in relation to factors that might serve to facilitate and encourage the regular use
of assessment and impact on the successful use of assessment to support the learning
process in primary physical education.
Overall impact
At the beginning of the study, the teachers had a clear understanding of why assessment
formed an important part of their teaching practice. The teachers were open to the possibi-
lities of using more formal assessment strategies in physical education. They suggested that
using assessment more in physical education might help others to ‘take PE more seriously’
(T5, interview 1). This, they suggested, may impact positively on the status of the subject by
allowing for acknowledgement of learning achievement, particularly for less academic chil-
dren. The one caveat that teachers placed on this process was that the use of assessment
should not lead to the fun being taken out of physical education classes (Morgan and
Hansen 2007): ‘but if it got too formal it might hinder and take the fun out of it and it’s
difficult to find a happy medium’ (T4, interview 1). Another teacher questioned ‘are we
going to put too much weight on it? We want them all to take part and we want them all
to have fun’ (T1, interview 1).
The implementation of structured assessment strategies enhanced the quality of teach-
ing in physical education (Patton and Griffin 2008; Rink et al. 2007) and the children’s
experiences and their learning: ‘The children loved it’ (T5, interview 3). The use of assess-
ment focused the children on learning in physical education and included the children in the
learning process (Cousins et al. 2004; James, Griffin, and France 2005; Patton and Griffin
2008). By making the learning in physical education explicit, the status of physical edu-
cation was enhanced from the learner’s perspective. One teacher noted that ‘PE wasn’t
going out for the craic, you know, it was a subject’ (T4, interview 3). This awareness of
the educational value of the subject and a sense of ownership in lessons as a result of assess-
ment is encouraging and resonates with other literature in the area (MacPhail and Halbert
2010).
Teacher learning
The process of engagement with structured assessments in physical education was very
positive for teachers and learners and led some of the teachers to question their previous
practices in physical education: ‘I learned so much ... I kind of thought, before, jeepers
what was I doing when I was teaching PE, was I not taking all this in?’ (T4, interview 3).
As the teachers engaged with the process of using planned, structured assessments in their
physical education classes they found themselves using a greater variety of methodologies,
planning in more detail and reflecting on completed lessons: ‘I saw my own mistakes and
things for myself to improve upon in my own pedagogical practice’ (T5, interview 3).
Another teacher highlighted what the children taught them through the process: ‘Their
learning but our learning too from them. I am definitely more aware of it now than I
was’ (T3, interview 3). This aligns with evidence of teacher learning through engagement
with assessment suggested elsewhere in physical education contexts (James, Griffin, and
France 2005; MacPhail and Halbert 2010; Patton and Griffin 2008; Rink et al. 2007).
Teacher learning is considered below in relation to (a) knowledge of assessment, (b) knowl-
edge of physical education and (c) knowledge of the learner.
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Knowledge of assessment
Knowledge of assessment strategies is essential to effective use of these strategies to
enhance teaching and learning (Black and Wiliam 1998; Black et al. 2003; Wragg
2001). The teacher’s awareness and knowledge of assessment in this study were
greatly enhanced by using a variety of assessment strategies. As the teachers used
new strategies and saw their impact on the children’s learning, they recognised the
value of using a variety of strategies as advocated in the physical education curriculum
(Government of Ireland 1999b): ‘I was questioning before, and even when I did the
questioning this time it wasn’t great compared to other things ... I would put it at the
bottom of the pile now as opposed to before I’d say, sure I’ll use questioning’ (T4, inter-
view 3). However, while questioning was reportedly used on a weekly basis, assess-
ments involving the children in recording and peer assessment were less apparent.
Such strategies were not effective if used too often or in consecutive lessons as the chil-
dren grew tired of them. The teachers quickly realised the importance of not trying to do
too much in one lesson and the importance of keeping it simple: ‘I was trying to do too
many assessments and I was too involved in paperwork, with filling out pages and I was
totally disengaged from the children ... so I scrapped that .. . you can’t do it every week’
(T5, interview 3). The teachers suggested that their increased knowledge of assessment
and their recognition of its value to enhance learning would impact on their practice in
other curricular areas also: ‘I think you’ll carry it over, I definitely will now to other
subjects’ (T1, interview 3). This recognition of the transferability of learning suggests
that subject-specific practices may enhance teacher practices across other curricular
areas.
Knowledge of physical education
The teachers found that their physical education content knowledge improved through con-
structing assessment strategies and using them with the children: ‘I got really quick at assessing
and, you know, I think because of that as well I actually knew my content an awful lot better’
(T5, interview 3). The teachers recognised the importance of knowing the physical education
content and progressions to support skill learning and development. One teacher described
how, as a result of using assessment, she is better equipped to support children’s learning:
I am knowledgeable of this subject area, therefore I can immediately see the difficulties or areas
of improvements to be made. This affects your teaching ... improves feedback for the children.
It impacts on a children’s learning .... (T4, interview 3)
The key role of content knowledge in supporting assessment practices in physical education
is supported elsewhere in the literature (James, Griffin, and France 2005; MacPhail and
Halbert 2010; Rink et al. 2007). This implies that content knowledge should be a fundamen-
tal consideration for any initiative intending to use assessment as a lever to enhance teach-
ing and learning.
Knowledge of the learner
The use of assessmen t strategies provided insight into the learners and their learning. One
teacher described how using a checklist helped her to diagnose difficulties and support
some children during an athletics lesson:
... it drew my attention to the kids who really were struggling. The kids who were flying over
the high jump no problem ... but the kids who wouldn’t, ... you could actually notice the kids
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... it made you stop the whole lesson so you could, like for the javelin, let’s walk it through,
you know, step over, step over, plant, throw. (T3, interview 3)
The use of assessment strategies provided feedback to the teacher on th e children’s learning
and also supported a process of reflection related to future planning:
I really gained an insight into how the children felt about the lesson and their learning during
the conferencing. This will certainly influence my teaching of future lessons. (T5, reflection 5)
Some teachers also found that the assessment strategies opened up new avenues for dialo-
gue with the children, impacting positively on their relationship with the children as well as
on the effectiveness on their teaching. Peer and self-assessments brought other issues to
light that are also important for successful learning. Such issues include teamwork and
co-operation: ‘these enhance my own awareness of other hidden issues (i.e. hidden curricu-
lum) that have a role to play in dictating if lessons are successful or not’ (T4, reflection 4).
The teachers became more aware of grouping children appropriately to work together, how
children interacted with each other and how this impacted on learning. It seems that using
the assessment strategies had the effect of ‘slowing down time’ (T4, reflection 6) for the
teacher and allowing them to engage in a meaningful way with the children to support
their learning. This concept of assessment providing an important view of the whole
learner is supported by the literature (Carroll 1994; Frapwell 2010; Government of
Ireland 1999b).
Structure and focus for planning, teaching and learning
The assessment strategies provided structure and focus to the planning process that
enhanced the quality of teaching by providing a framework for the learning process:
I had a clear plan and knew the content of my lesson well. I knew how and when I was asses-
sing. I had clear easy to use criteria for the assessment. I had a good flow to the lesson as I knew
the content well and had notes taken. (T4, reflection 4)
A heightened sense of awareness during lessons was also apparent: ‘You were very aware
of their movement, whereas you may have just said “let’s give this a go” beforehand ... you
definitely zone in’ (T2, interview 3). Patton and Griffin (2008) also found that use of assess-
ment strategies promoted an alignment between planning, instruction and assessment. The
structure provided by assessment strategies is considered below in relation to (a) focus for
the learners, (b) feedback for learners and the teacher and (c) peer learning.
Focus for the learners
One can’t teach everything in one lesson so assessment really helped to clarify and focus teach-
ing. (T4, reflection 3)
Making links between the learning intentions and assessment strategies provided structure
and focus for the teacher at the planning stage: ‘I identified the objectives (WALT) and what
my intentions were, that really helped me’ (T2, interview 3). This clarification of learning
intentions is viewed as central to effective assessment (Bailey 2001; NCCA 2007, 2008;
Piotrowski 2000). As a result of devising assessment strategies and planning their role
within individual physical education lessons, the teachers found that their lessons
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became more structured. The teachers emphasised the value of sharing WALT and WILF
with the children for each lesson before leaving the classroom to move to the activity
space: ‘They were well aware of what was going to come up and what the lesson was all
about’ (T1, interview 3). They found that this enhanced learning by helping to establish
a strong learning focus from the beginning of each lesson. Clarity of focus ensured that
the teacher utilised all opportunities to enhance learning and used the time available effec-
tively. One teacher described how sharing the learning intention impacted on the children’s
effort levels by providing a framework for their learning: ‘They know they are going to
have a check (assessment) at the end of the lesson so they generally want to do well in
the check and do their best ...’ (T4, reflection 5). The children seemed to be more motivated
as they wanted to reach targets and show improvement in assessment tasks (Siedento p and
Tannehill 2000). MacPhail and Halbert (2010) concur that students are more appreciative of
the learning process and enjoy having targets to aim toward when learning goals are shared.
The use of assessment also provided benchmarks for the children to evaluate their own per-
formance: ‘They were aware of their own levels, their own limitations, I actually felt they
were being very honest’ (T1, interview 3). This provides further evidence of the value of
having a clear focus with assessment criteria determined at the planning stage and the
importance of sharing these criteria with the children.
Feedback for the learners and the teacher
Providing feedback to the learner to enhance learning is a key aspect of formative assess-
ment strategies (Conner 1999; Cousins et al. 2004; Elwood 2006; Rink and Hall 2008; Sie-
dentop and Tannehill 2000). Sharing assessment criteria using WILF (What I am looking
for) allowed the teachers to give relevant feedback consistently to the children in their
class, resulting in assessment that ‘ensured fairness, equal judgements and equal assess-
ment’ (T4, reflection 3). One of the teachers described how initially giving feedback con-
sumed her full attention:
It was even funny yesterday, how we were out on the green and one of the other older teachers
was there with his class and I’d say four times in the space of about thirty seconds ‘great ball’,
‘great ball’, ‘great ball’. And I was kind of going: all I had in my head was ‘great ball’ but
there’s so much more going on here than just ‘great ball!’ .... (T3, interview 2)
As the lessons progressed, each teacher’s feedback gradually became more specific and tar-
geted certain aspects of the children’s learning more explicitly:
... structuring the observation using a checklist really focused my feedback to the children and
improved the quality of feedback. I was able to give them very specific areas where they were
doing well and areas that they needed to improve on. (T5, reflection 6)
These commen ts highlight the effectiveness of the assessment strategies used and the tea-
chers developing skill to use assessment criteria to diagnose difficulties and support
learning.
The teachers emphasised the critical role of reflection on practice as a means to enhance
teaching by allowing the teacher to evaluate learning against established criteria and provid-
ing feedback to inform future planning: ‘my class won’t be as haphazard’ (T2, interview 3).
This underlines the importance of providing teachers with time and space to plan and reflect
on past lessons. The teachers emphasised the importance of recording and reflecting on
assessment after each lesson, highlighting the busy reality of the primary school context:
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‘The one thing is the time, if you don’t get it written down, forget it’ (T3, interview 3). These
teachers advised: ‘If you just get into the routine of it, like in the end, we were doing it natu-
rally and we weren’t taking on anything new’ (T1, interview 3).
Peer learning
Teachers realised the importance of including a variety of different assessment strategies.
Peer assessment in particular engaged the older children with the WILF associated with
the learning intention and ensured they were involved and invested in the learning
(Patton and Griffin 2008). Peer assessment also seemed to provide particular opportunities
for the children to interact socially with each other:
Using the star and the card I just thought that it had a big bearing on behaviour and kids
working together and bringing on the weaker child in a group setting even though I said
nothing about group activity one of the things they said afterwards that they could have
been better at the group or they could have been more help and that came from them and
not from me so they were aware. (T1, interview 2)
The teachers suggested that it was important to be aware of how children spoke to each
other: ‘They found it tough because they didn’t want to offend anyone and they were tip-
toeing around. Then you’ve the other guy who’s completely blunt, d’you know? So it, that
was a dicey one I think to actually attempt’ (T3, interview 3). Bailey (2001) asserts that
while peer assessment does offer an interesting way of gathering evidence, the skills
required to do so are not naturally developed in children. Some of the teachers encountered
difficulties when using peer assessment: ‘It gets complicated and particularly for those
weaker kids, the brighter kids have it straight away, but the weaker ones ....’ (T3,
interview 3). This highlights the importance of giving explicit guidance on how peer assess-
ment works and the importance of modelling the feedback process involved in peer assess-
ment beforehand.
Some of the teachers found themselves challenge d to adapt the assessment strategies to
their context to meet the needs of the children in their classes, particularl y in the infant
context: ‘I found it very restricted because they [ infants] can’t read as such and they
can’t write’ (T2, interview 3). The teachers of the junior classes found that using
groups of observers rather than individual peers to guide each other worked best. This high-
lights the importance of provide d differentiated examples of assessment for the infant
classes and the importance of designing a variety of strategies for use specifically in
infant contexts.
How can we support teachers to use assessment in physical education?
Overall, the experience of using assessment strategies seems to have enhanced the learning
in physical education and also changed how this learning happens. One teacher described
how she hopes using assessment strategies has changed the dynamic of future physical edu-
cation experiences:
I kind of would hope that ... when we go back and use assessment again that they would, take
more of the responsibility ... it would be easier for me to give them tasks that they could do and
take responsibility for themselves and therefore shift the balance ... instead of looking at me
for, you know, everything ... even all the fun that we’re going to have, you know, that it
wouldn’t be all, sort of, coming from me. (T1, interview 3)
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These teachers suggested that, as found elsewhere (NCCA 2008), lack of support and infor-
mation materials to guide the design of assessment strategies for physical education was the
biggest obstacle to future use of assessment where there is still ‘a big gap between the
knowledge and the practice and filling that gap was very, very difficult to do’ (T5, interview
3). This reflects Black’s (2005) suggestion that if an assessment system is ill-designed or
misunderstood, then teachers’ reactions may indeed be hostile. These teachers acknowl-
edged that their level of commitment might not be possible or reasonable to expect of
many primary teachers where ‘so much paperwork is being imposed on teachers now. I
don’t know how far I’d go into researching different things if I didn’t have to do it’ (T2,
interview 3). Despite the challenges faced around planning, these teachers were convinced
of the merits of using assessment in physical education: ‘I’m amazed to think that I actually
really feel so strongly now that somebody needs to do something about this’ (T4, interview
3). The solution in their view was: ‘the “magic book” based on the Irish curriculum .. . that
it’s suitable and gives you more ideas’ (T4, interview 3). Morgan and Hansen (2007) also
found that teachers emphasised the need for supports to enhance knowledge of assessment
in physical education. The teachers suggested that sample strategies, aligned with lesson
content and differentiated by class level, would assist greatly in supporting teachers to
use assessment in physical education: ‘... if you have a framework you will ... add to it
and you will adjust it to suit yourself and suit your own class’ (T5, interview 3). The tea-
chers also felt that the support materials should be easy to use: ‘handouts like that would be
very easy for somebody to say “right, I’ll give this a go” and don’t demand huge prep-
aration’ (T1, interview 3). This evidence suggests that using assessment is both feasible
and desirable to enhance learning in physical education but teachers must be provided
with guidance and support materials (Patton and Griffin 2008; Rink et al. 2007). Further-
more, the commitment of these teachers to using assessment as a regular element of their
physical education practices suggests that assessment may provide a means to impact posi-
tively on the status of physical education by making the learning explicit.
Conclusion and implications
The use of structured planned assessment strategies in primary physical education provided
a framework that enhanced teaching and learning. The use of assessment strategies was a
positive experience for both the teachers and the children in their classes by providing a
structure that made learning explicit and allowed learning to be acknowledged. Teachers’
perspectives on assessment changed dramatically as the value of assessment in enhancing
the learning process was recognised. As a result of using assessment strategies, the teachers
believed that the children learned more in their physical education classes and that they
themselves became better teachers of physical education. This recognition can enhance
teaching and learning in other subject areas also through the application of assessment strat-
egies. The impact of enhanced knowledge of assessment across other subject areas would
be worth exploring further. In order to address teachers’ knowled ge and practices in assess-
ment in physical education, more emphasis should be placed on assessment practices and
provision of sample assessment tools in physical education during initial teacher education.
Following on from this, teachers need to be supported to apply assessment strategies in
physical education through continuing professional development.
Assessment helped focus both the teacher and the children on the specific learning
intentions of the lesson, provided feedback on progress to the teacher and the learners
and supported future planning. This study was framed from the perspective of the
teacher. Exploration of the learners’ perspective on the assessment process in enhancing
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their learning and experiences of physical education merits further attention. In addition,
case studies of teachers using specified tools with different age groups of children would
be of value to inform future practices. This could provide evidence of the link between
assessment practices and children’s learning and support the development of resource
materials including assessment samples in physical education. The use of assessment strat-
egies not only provided a structure that enhanced teaching and learning, but made that
learning explicit to the teacher and learners in a way that suggests assessment may
provide a pathway to enhance both the participants’ perspectives on their physical edu-
cation experiences as well as the practices of physical education in primary schools.
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Appendix
Assessment wheel: A simple self-assessment tool that supports the learner to assess their own progress,
record their own learning, consider gaps and plan future learning in conversation with the teacher
(JCPE 2006).
Smiley face assessment
: A simple form of self-assessment where children rate their achieve-
ment in relation to a particular task by indicating which face applies to them.
Thumbs-up/down
: A simple form of self-assessment where children indicate their understanding
or level of achievement by signaling with their hands.
Two wishes and a star
: A simple form of self-assessment where children consider what they
already know (star) and things they would still like to learn/practice more of (wishes).
Think, share, pair, square: A group-based assessment where pairs share their understandings and then
combine their ideas with another pair (square) to extend their understanding.
Questioning: A form of assessment that underpins all other assessment methods that can be teacher-
led or directed by the children (NCCA 2007).
Observation: Teacher or peer observation involves observation of activity using checklists, rubrics
and rating scales (Hopple 2005).
Teacher-designed tasks: Oral, written or performance-based tasks developed by the teacher. Perform-
ance on the task is compared with predetermined criteria as a measure of learning.
Journaling: Children write in a journal after each lesson to support reflection upon their thoughts, feel-
ings, impressions, perceptions and attitudes about their performances, events, tasks or other learning
experiences (Siedentop and Tannehill 2000).
Conferencing: Involves the teacher (and/or other parties concerned with the child’s learning) and the
child having an informal conversation regarding the child’s progress in a particular area of learning
(NCCA 2007). This conversation can be supported by records from other assessment tools.
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