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Teaching Musical Fiction
Marcin Stawiarski
To cite this version:
Marcin Stawiarski. Teaching Musical Fiction. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 2008, 42 (4), pp.78-88.
�10.1353/jae.0.0027�. �hal-02266699�
TEACHING MUSICAL FICTION
Marcin STAWIARSKI
University of Poitiers
FORELL E.A.3816
Personal working paper version: May 2008
Abstract
Given the increasing interest in musico-literary studies and extended bibliographies of
intermedial texts, it is necessary to reconsider the use of intersemiotic teaching materials.
Musical fiction calls for a specific approach and requires specialized knowledge. But using
musically inspired novels and short stories in the classroom along with musical materials
proves an enriching experience. In my opinion, the importance of the role played by
intermediality lies in the fact that it allows us to raise questions about textuality and
literariness through contrastive analysis. It also seems to me that it is essential to broaden
interartistic teaching materials by introducing musical auxiliary materials in literature classes
on the same level as picture or film analysis.
Introduction
Given the increasing interest in musico-literary studies, I wish to examine some ways in
which music can be used for pedagogical purposes in teaching literature. It has been widely
recognized that music and poetry sprang from a common origin as chant or incantation [1].
Throughout the ages, the sister arts sometimes went hand in hand, sometimes parted
company, but since the end of the 19th
century musical aspects have been massively used in
literature, either as a subject matter or as a wellhead of structures. The number of musically
inspired 20th-century novels bears evidence to this strengthening of musico-literary
relationships [2]. Contemporary interactive, interdisciplinary and multi-medial works of art or
artistic events also testify to a close sisterhood between the arts. This phenomenon has come
to be called intermediality, defined as using more than one artistic medium in the creation of a
work of art. But then, examining musical aspects in literature demands specific knowledge of
the musical field itself, thus raising questions about the limits and the difficulties of using
musico-literary materials in class. Suppose the student were not knowledgeable at all about
music. What can then be the input the teacher can offer the student without necessarily
inundating the latter with too much information? Is it possible to avoid generalizations in
drawing comparisons or distinctions between music and literature? And, is it relevant to deal
with music in teaching fiction?
I wish to suggest that there are pragmatic elements of music which may be used in teaching
music-related texts without previous skills in the musical field. In this respect, music may
serve as an enriching and fascinating teaching tool. The point I would like to make is that
quite often music leads the text to raise questions about literariness itself, so that it becomes
possible not only to discuss musico-literary interrelations, but to tackle the specificity of
literature through the prism of intermediality.
This paper will deal with two kinds of musico-literary phenomena appearing in fiction. On the
one hand, I wish to examine the implications of the historical and cultural background in
musicalized texts as an inherent aspect of many novels. On the other hand, I wish to broach
the question of the musicalization of fiction, that is to say the transposition or imitation of
musical forms in literature.
1) Literature speaking about music
The need of a context
In dealing with musical contexts of literary texts, the teacher may bring the student’s attention
to bear on the variety of ways a text may be related to music. A typology of different musico-
literary interrelations has been established by such critics as Calvin S. Brown [3] or Steven P.
Scher [4]. In Scher, one may find a useful chart, dividing the musico-literary studies into two
categories: literary presence within the musical field (explored by musicology) and musical
presence within the literary field (explored by literary studies). The latter may be subdivided
into word music, musical structures and verbal music. This typology has been furthered by
Werner Wolf in his critical work on the musicalization of fiction. Yet too detailed a
categorization may seem difficult to put into practice in class. Its principle drawback lies in
the difficulty to sever one musical phenomenon in literature from the other. In numerous cases
it seems impossible to drive an unequivocal wedge between a) prosodic phenomena,
appertaining to word music or musicality, b) exclusively thematic or topical elements and c)
specifically structural transpositions. Such an accurate classification would thus be preferably
used with more advanced students.
The thematic or topical relationship I want to focus on in this part is by far the easiest to get
across to students, since it does not require musical skills. This approach is roughly
tantamount to Scher’s verbal music or Wolf’s thematization [5], and it appears in texts dealing
with music explicitly.
Many texts resort to an extramusical (or paramusical) rather than a purely musical content. In
other words, it is the critical or mythical context surrounding a given musical work that is
often used in fiction. In reading Rose Tremain’s novel, Music and Silence, it is necessary to
account for the historical context of the musical elements in the text. The setting of the King’s
table concerts – played by a group of musicians hidden in a cellar so that the sound might be
transmitted from below – clearly draws on the baroque custom of Tafelmusik. The context
may thus be explained to students with the aid of non fictional historical or musicological
texts [6]. Such texts may spur discussion about music used as a background to feasts and
banquets, and it seems useful to make students listen to relevant musical excerpts [7].
Accordingly, contemporary listening habits may be worth debating. What has come to be
called Muzak – music one cannot help listening to in elevators or waiting on the phone, or
background and ambient music in a restaurant – may constitute a fruitful ground for an
interesting discussion on the role music plays in our everyday life.
In relation to Tremain’s novel, some phenomenological aspects of music may also be tackled.
Indeed, contrary to seeing, hearing cannot be avoided, since “our ears have no eyelids,” as the
contemporary French writer, Pascal Quignard, puts it [8]. Tremain’s novel toys with this
specific sound property. In addition to this phenomenological impossibility to avoid hearing,
one may point to the instability of sound and its incapacity to be perceived as part of an
objectified, realistic universe. Hence, the role of music in realistic fiction, where it can
sometimes participate in the referential illusion or signify the milieu, is completely different
from the role of music in gothic fiction. The latter resorts precisely to the anti-realistic,
uncanny instability of sound, which appears clearly enough in Ann Radcliffe’s The Mysteries
of Udolpho. Here music exerts a crucial function in the construction of the plot. The mystery
builds up thanks to the intermittent and unstable nature of sounds which exacerbate the
uncanny. Hence, a meditation on sound perception may constitute a helpful ancillary subject
matter to historical contextualization of texts dealing with music.
I wish to point to yet another example of historical or cultural contextualization of a musico-
literary work. Gabriel Josipovici’s Goldberg: Variations stages a character, Goldberg, arriving
at a manor where he is to read to his employer, Westfield. The latter suffers from insomnia,
and decides to hire a writer to read for him during the night from a room adjacent to his own,
so that it may alleviate his suffering or make him finally fall asleep. In the first chapter, it
turns out that Westfield had tried employing a musician earlier on, but the musical remedy fell
through. That is why, as a writer, Goldberg is to compose his own texts and read them out for
Westfield. The novel sets up an intersemiotic dynamics, akin to rivalry between the arts. The
musical context relates to J. S. Bach’s Goldberg Variations, and it would be instructive to
make students listen to the composition, at least the introductory theme: the Aria. In spite of
the difficulty that the analysis of the score may present, it may be spoken of on quite a general
level, through its extramusical context. In fact, Bach’s first biographer, Johann Nikolaus
Forkel reports that the composition was commissioned by Count Hermann Keyserling who
suffered from insomnia. Goldberg was to perform the variations for Keyserling in an adjacent
room. The legend is thus an interesting prerequisite for understanding Josipovici’s novel.
Representing the listener
Speaking of multifarious musical contexts, one may also tackle the historical aspects of
reception by examining texts that depict the topos of the concert. The opera scene is
frequently used in the 19th-century novel as a theatrical mirror of the milieu. In Balzac’s
novels, to take an instance, opera emerges as a mirror and a means of discovery of the
Parisian society [9]. The heuristic value of the concert representation appears in many a book,
only to mention Villiers de l’Isle-Adam’s short story, “Unknown Woman,” or Willa Cather’s
novel, The Song of the Lark.
Besides, the intimacy of the private reception (chamber music, as in Proust’s Remembrance of
Things Past) may be contrasted with public performances. Contrastive analysis reveals rich
social and historical implications. Romantic reception, as in Kate Chopin’s The Awakening,
may be paralleled with Virginia Woolf’s short story, “The String Quartet,” both within the
dynamics of contrast between public and private spheres, and within the scope of an evolving
musical sensibility. The heroine of The Awakening, Edna, does not really listen to music for
sounds, but for pictures or images:
Edna was what she herself called very fond of music. Musical strains, well rendered, had a way of evoking
pictures in her mind. She sometimes liked to sit in the room of mornings when Madame Ratignolle played
or practiced. One piece which that lady played Edna had entitled “Solitude.” […] When she heard it there
came before her imagination the figure of a man standing beside a desolate rock on the seashore. He was
naked. His attitude was one of hopeless resignation as he looked toward a distant bird winging its flight
away from him. (Chopin, 44)
On listening to one of Chopin’s Impromptus, the heroine visualizes a watery landscape:
Edna did not know when the Impromptu began or ended. She sat in the sofa corner reading Robert’s letter
by the fading light. […] The shadows deepened in the little room. The music grew strange and fantastic–
turbulent, insistent, plaintive and soft with entreaty. The shadows grew deeper. The music filled the room. It
floated out upon the night, over the housetops, the crescent of the river, losing itself in the silence of the
upper air. (Chopin, 106)
The association of water and music hints at the notion of programme music which
presupposes both a specific stance towards musical signification and a particular response to
music. It tackles the problem of reception on the whole, with all possible stereotypical
implications it may engender. The pictorialization of music in The Awakening foreshadows
the very end of the novel, but it also reminds one of the long-debated dispute between the
proponents of pure music and the advocates of musical expressivity. This topic may be an
interesting vantage point from which the subject of music in literature may be tackled in class.
One may also broach the question of clichés of musical reception. Just as in The Awakening,
the protagonist of Virginia Woolf’s short story, “The String Quartet”, sees pictures when
listening to music. We are given a direct account of the character’s thoughts through the
technique of the stream of consciousness. It is noteworthy that in Woolf’s story the pictures
provoked by music are quite incongruous. Indeed, if the very beginning of the concert refers
to fours musicians, the remainder of the concert involves trumpets or clarions. Moreover,
through their watery quality the described images remind one of Schubert’s Trout, a quintet
rather than a quartet:
Flourish, spring, burgeon, burst! The pear tree on the top of the mountain. Fountains jet; drops descend. But
the waters of the Rhone flow swift and deep, race under the arches, and sweep the trailing water leaves,
washing shadows over the silver fish, the spotted fish rushed down by the swift waters, […],
conglomeration of fish all in a pool; leaping, splashing, scraping sharp fins; and such a boil of current that
the yellow pebbles are churned round and round, round and round […]. (Woolf, 22)
Through the magnified painterly technique – one might talk about hypotyposis or even
ekphrasis, thus a pictorial depiction rather than a sonorous one –, the text seems to highlight
the stereotypical nature of musical reception. The dialogues appearing in between the snatches
of the stream of consciousness undermine the habits of the concert. In the upshot, the
protagonist turns away from the sophisticated world of concert-goers and the grandiloquent
language of programme music, contemplating simplicity.
The Awakening and “The String Quartet” present a rich range of possibilities for the
classroom, be they textual, historical, or cultural. The topos of the concert is as much a means
of characterization as a tool of satire on the society. It also brings to the foreground the
question of signification, both in The Awakening and “The String Quartet.” But most
importantly, the musical context allows one to deal with the subject of representation and the
question of signification on the whole.
The difficulty of describing music and the recourse to pictorial depiction of it may be used as
one possible springboard for discussion of differences in representation between different arts.
Programme music may be tackled in accordance with the notion of mimesis. It may be helpful
to listen to musical excerpts and discuss them. One may use Camille Saint-Saëns’s Carnival
of the Animals, or even more ancient compositions, such as Ignaz Heinrich Biber’s Sonata
Representativa.
Consequently, the thematic or topical relationship between music and literature requires a
specific contextualization. It seems obvious that the musical or extramusical context of the
texts mentioning or speaking about music, however indirectly, needs to be accounted for. I
have recently come across a poem by Galway Kinnell, “Farewell”. The poem clearly draws
on Joseph Haydn’s Farewell Symphony (n°45). According to the legend surrounding this
work, Haydn composed the symphony to show his patron, Prince Nikolaus Esterházy, that the
musicians he employed should be given a leave – in the final adagio (alluded to in Kinnell’s
poem) the musicians gradually leave the stage, so that there are only two violins left in the
end. The symphony thus presents us with a progressive disintegration of music, which
characterizes the farewell theme in the poem.
I wish to suggest that such contextualizations lead us to raise questions about literariness
itself. The representation of the concert not only provides us with important clues as to the
historical dimension of reading and listening, but it is also quite telltale as to the questions of
meaning and representation, generally speaking. Hence, not only is the musical context a
necessary background for literary interpretation, but it also becomes a wellspring of questions
one may raise about literature and literariness.
2) Musical forms showing through literature
Zones of musicalization
In Aldous Huxley’s Point Counter Point, the musico-literary relationship is defined “not in
the symbolist way […] but on a large scale, in the construction,” (Huxley, 293). It is called
musicalization of fiction, referring to texts modelled on musical forms or techniques. But then
structural parallels between literature and music face many a stumbling block, mainly because
of the semiotic or temporal differences between the two arts. The use of musicalized texts in
class may thus seem quite difficult, since considerable specialized knowledge of musical
techniques is needed.
I wish to suggest that it is possible to deal with musicalized texts on a broader and more
abstract level. It seems quite obvious that imitating musical forms in literary texts cannot be
considered verbatim as the transfer of a formal entity from one medium into the other. Given
the necessary transformations, the process is much looser than is often acknowledged. But it
is also important to avoid ungrounded and generalizing statements. It thus seems necessary to
strike a balance between overly literal readings of musicalized texts and overly loose
interpretations of music in literature. Furthermore, music highlights some specifically literary
aspects, and, once again, it may well be used as a springboard for discussing literary
questions.
First, one possible notion that can prove interesting in the classroom is the idea of rhythm or,
perhaps more generally, the question of speed. Rhythm may be paralleled with metrics and
prosody on the whole, but it is not to be limited to verbal rhythm. I tend to consider the
musicalization of fiction as a local phenomenon – rather than a formal literary design
dependent on music through and through, it has more to do with areas or zones of
musicalization. The idea of zones implies that there is a variation of intensity of musical
formalism in literary texts, and the rhythmical aspects of narrative fiction are, in my opinion,
predicated precisely on fluctuating intensities.
It can be useful to draw comparisons between poetic feet and rhythmical units in music. Some
musicalized texts resort to metrical transposition. In Anthony Burgess’s Mozart and the Wolf
Gang, the initial rhythmic unit from Mozart’s 40th Symphony is imitated by the text by the
use of anapaests (“he himself he himself he himself trod” (Burgess, 81)). It may be interesting
to make students listen to the composition before reading the text. No particular musical
knowledge should be necessary and the recourse to poetic feet should be sufficient.
Yet prosody is on no account the equivalent of the musical rhythm, judging by the lack of
bars or simply by the fact that musical rhythm is far more precise than the poetic rhythm
could ever be. Moreover, in literature rhythm is also dependent on meaning, which music
lacks. In fact, numerous texts denote or connote speed without their verbal rhythm being any
swifter, additionally to prosodic devices.
The flight sequence of The Giaour remains in iambic tetrameter all through, even though the
sensation of an incredibly fast pace grows and grows. The speed is above all predicated on the
lexical field of flight (“hastened”, “flew”, “flight”, “speed”), riding (“hoofs”, “spurs”,
“stirrup”), and disappearance (“passed and vanished”, “the rock relieves him from my eye”).
The impression of quickening is mostly semantic, which does not rule out the acoustic
dimension as a means of rhythmical suggestibility.
In Conrad Aiken’s novel, Great Circle, the speed is evoked both by dwelling on words
pregnant with rhythmic connotation and the verbal imitation of speed through repetition or
onomatopoeia:
Hurry – hurry – hurry everything was hurrying. The train was hurrying. The world was hurrying. The
landscape was hurrying. The wheels rushed blindly over the rails, over the joints, over the switches: rat-
te-tat-te-tattle-te-tat-te-tump-te-tattle-te-tee. The locomotive driver, or the fireman […], was obsessed
with the panic of speed, and blew prolongedly and repeatedly on the whistle. Scarcely a minute was left
unpunctuated by the moan of the whistle […]. The whole world, it seemed, was to be made conscious of
the important hurry of the train. (Aiken, 170)
Alongside prosodic devices, the text makes use of the semantic potential of words in order to
suggest increasing speed, extendedly exploring the lexical field of celerity.
The idea of zones appears quite clearly in William H. Gass’s “The Pedersen Kid”. Divided
into three parts, each of which is in its turn split into three, the novella presents us with a
highly perceptible formalism, whose culminating point is operated through at least two zones
of great intensity. Indeed, two final passages show both an accretion of contrapuntal intensity
(as a superimposition of discourses) and an accretion of repetitive intensity. The latter is
further magnified by the typographical device of voids:
The wagon had a great big wheel. Papa had a paper sack. Mama held my hand. High horse waved
his tail. Papa had a paper sack. We both ran to hide. Mama held my hand. The wagon had
a great big wheel. High horse waved his tail. We both ran to hide […]. (Gass, 75-76)
If one considers the text as a contrapuntal composition – in an interview Gass mentions the
round (canon) as its structural model – it becomes possible to interpret these two passages as
fugal stretti, i.e. zones of heightened polyphonic overlapping of voices. Although, it seems
difficult to work with students on the fugue in relation to this text, it may be interesting to
compare the literary devices used to regulate gradation, intensity and culmination with the
musical devices that govern direction and progression, such as the fugal stretti (one may listen
to Bach fugues from the Well-Tempered Clavier).
Intermediality, intertextuality and musical forms in literature
Second, beside the notion of zones, it is also necessary to consider the texts modelled on
musical forms within the context of a broader intermediality and that of literary intertextuality
itself.
Josipovici’s Goldberg: Variations comprises structural elements in reference to Bach’s
composition. The music and the novel are both predicated on the notion of circularity. Some
of the elements contributing to the idea of the cycle may be pointed out without students’
knowing how to read or analyze music. One may resort to presenting them with the
symbolical construction of numbers in Bach’s music. Both the Aria and the variations are
built upon the fundamental bass in two parts. Each part comprises sixteen bars, played twice.
The range of the musical phrase is founded on four bars each. All this amounts to an
architecture based on the multiplicity of the number four going up to sixty-four. The Goldberg
Variations may be divided into two parts, each comprising fifteen variations and the Aria
which is repeated (da capo) at the end, which brings us back to the number thirty-two.
Consequently, there are levels of embedding in terms of numerical organization. One may
bring that to the student’s notice with the aid of the score, without necessarily going into
detail as to the harmonic unfolding of the composition. A parallel may thus be drawn between
the musical text and the literary text on the level of construction. Students may be encouraged
to look for elements of circularity within the novel. The first chapter of the novel already
establishes a cycle: Goldberg is going to write a text about the impossibility of writing. A
strange loop is achieved: the metatextual turn of the text is at one with the notion of the cycle.
It may also prove interesting to draw comparisons between other literary adaptations of the
Goldberg Variations. Richard Powers’s The Gold Bug Variations may be apprehended not
only through Bach’s composition, but also through E.A. Poe’s short story, “The Gold Bug,”
on which the title is a pun. What Powers’s novel enhances is the play with meaning and
ciphers just as Poe or Bach toy with numbers, both as symbols and secrets to decipher. In this
regard, it may be useful, even if one does not study The Gold Bug Variations in the
classroom, to read through Powers’s structural response to Bach’s Aria from the Goldberg
Variations: four poems (“The Perpetual Calendar”), each in four quatrains.
The question of drawing on some structural feature of music may thus be put across to
students provided it is done on a rather abstract level. A comparative approach being already a
synthetic activity per se, intermedial teaching materials only sharpen it. Often enough
interartistic materials permit one to get back to literariness, since the techniques of
intersemiotic translation can but operate through literary devices. Hofstadter’s “Crab Canon”
in Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid renders the backward motion of Bach’s
canon from the Musical Offering by means of a palindrome. Students may read through
Hofstadter’s text listening to Bach’s canon.
The need to examine literary devices themselves when analyzing intermedial texts appears
clearly in Josipovici’s Goldberg: Variations as well. Searching for variations in the novel, one
may come across a stumbling block: the theme is rather hard to find [10]. But in spite of this,
there undoubtedly appears what one may call transtylization [11], that is to say a diversity of
styles, methods or devices. In this respect, the novel does bring forward a set of variations, in
a broader sense. But then, the idea of variation makes one wonder not so much about the
musical form, but about specifically literary questions of stylistic hybridization, multiple
narration, perspectivism, or literary genres – among the different types of writing the novel
comprises epistolary, dialogic or narrative techniques. Unavoidably, intermediality and the
musicalization of fiction seem to lead to reconsidering textuality itself: there is certainly a
degree of reflexivity and mirroring at stake.
Also, just as in the case of Hofstadter’s text referring not only to Bach’s music but also to
M.C. Escher’s etchings, Josipovici’s novel resorts to pictorial devices. Goldberg: Variations
makes use of the ekphrasis, the postcard, the curiosity cabinet or the trompe-l’œil.
Intermediality involves thinking about the arts on the whole, and quite often requires a
synthetic approach to several media in tandem. Josipovici’s short story, “Absence and Echo,”
stages a dialogue between two characters who, contemplating a painting by Vermeer, wonder
not only about the pictorial, but about the musical as well, for the arts are embedded.
Considering the musicalization of fiction within a broader intermedial context of forms allows
one to draw rich structural comparisons. This approach is justified by the contemporary
intermedial turn in the arts, observable in numerous interartistic festivals or events and in the
rise of intersemiotic creation such as digital literature. It also makes us appreciate earlier
contexts of interartistic cooperation, which may either be conceived of as intermedial
complementarities (sister arts) or interartistic confrontation or rivalry (agonistics). In teaching
musical fiction to more advanced students, it thus seems useful to refer to more general,
intermedial handbooks first, such as William Fleming’s Arts and Ideas or Thomas Munro’s
The Arts and Their Interrelations.
Conclusion
In the light of the extended musico-literary bibliographies and the importance of
intermediality in the contemporary artistic activity, I think that the impact music exerts upon
the literary should be reconsidered and that more musico-literary materials should be used in
teaching literature, if not as an independent subject matter, at least as ancillary materials just
as painting or film already are. If it appears quite clear that difficulties arise when technical
musical skills are needed for formal analysis, in many literary works, however, music
provides a general historical or cultural context that can be explained without necessarily
calling for musicological competence. I also think that every time an art resorts to parallels
with other arts, it becomes self-reflective, so that dealing with music in literature often makes
us raise literary questions. I am convinced that the classroom will only benefit from opening
up to this universal language and will gain from intermedial synergies.
Endnotes
[1] See Hollander, John. “Music and Poetry.” Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics.
Ed. Alex Preminger. Princeton: PUP, 1974. 533-536.
[2] See, for example, Brown, Kellie D. An Annotated Bibliography and Reference List of
Musical Fiction. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 2005.
[3] Brown, Calvin S. Music and Literature: A Comparison of the Arts. Hanover: UP of New
England, 1987.
[4] Scher, Steven P. “Literature and Music.” Interrelations of Literature. Ed. Barricelli and
Gibaldi. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 1982. 225-250.
[5] Wolf, Werner. The Musicalization of Fiction: A Study in the Theory and History of
Intermediality. Amsterdam, Atlanta: Rodopi, 1999.
[6] See G.K. Chesterton’s essay “Music with Meals.” Pleasures of Music: An Anthology of
Writing about Music and Musicians from Cellini to Bernard Shaw. Ed. Barzun, Jacques.
Chicago: The UP of Chicago, 1951.
[7] One may decide to listen to Johann Hermann Schein’s Banchetto musicale (1617),
Thomas Simpson’s Taffel-Consort (1621), or Georg Philipp Telemann’s Tafelmusik (1733).
[8] See Pascal Quignard’s essay “Il se trouve que les oreilles n’ont pas de paupières (“It so
happens that our ears have no eyelids”). La Haine de la musique. Paris : Calmann-Lévy, 1996.
105-136.
[9] See, for instance, Balzac, Honoré de. Illusions perdues. Paris: Gallimard, 1961.
[10] See Werner Wolf’s discussion in “The Role of Music in Gabriel Josipovici’s Goldberg:
Variations.” Style 37.3 (2003): 294-317.
[11] See Gérard Genette, Palimpsestes. La littérature au second degré. Paris: Seuil, 1982.
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