2019] MINDS, MACHINES, AND THE LAW 1891
movements
11
—can be understood as a mental state as well.
12
Thus, in
addition to any further mens rea requirements, any area of law requiring
a willful action for liability is implicitly asking for a mental state as well,
because the presence of volition is what makes a movement count as a
willful action (rather than, say, a muscle spasm) in the first place.
13
Men-
tal state requirements thus exist in nearly every area of law, including
criminal law, torts, and contract.
14
Indeed, these requirements are so
prevalent that there is even a legal category arguably defined in terms of
an absence of any mens rea beyond volition itself: namely, strict liability.
15
These requirements are premised on the assumption that the mind—and
not just the body—matters to the law.
16
In other words, when such re-
quirements exist, the body might move to do something prohibited, but
only when this is conjoined with the corresponding illicit mental state is
this a prohibited action.
As an evidentiary matter, discerning the presence of a mental state
in a human requires “mind reading,” so to speak, because people cannot
directly observe or measure a mental state.
17
Nonetheless, the law typi-
cally feels comfortable—though perhaps it should not
18
—answering the
question of whether a human had the required mental state. In light of
these requirements, as machines become more pervasive in performing
operations that humans traditionally performed, the law will find itself
needing to assess not just the permissibility of machines’ operations but
also whether they have operated with an illicit mental state.
11. See Michael S. Moore, Act and Crime: The Philosophy of Action and Its
Implications for Criminal Law 113–65 (1993) [hereinafter Moore, Act and Crime] (defend-
ing a theory of volition as the mental state that causes actions).
12. See, e.g., id. at 115 (“‘Volition’ names a state or an event within the mind of the
actor.”).
13. See id. at 113–65.
14. See, e.g., Kent Greenawalt, A Pluralist Approach to Interpretation: Wills and
Contracts, 42 San Diego L. Rev. 533, 575–82 (2005) (contracts); Simons, supra note 10, at
468–73 (criminal law and torts).
15. See Simons, supra note 10, at 464.
16. See, e.g., Keren Shapira-Ettinger, The Conundrum of Mental States: Substantive
Rules and Evidence Combined, 28 Cardozo L. Rev. 2577, 2579–81 (2007) (“[C]riminal law
has adopted the vague metaphysical dualistic vision between a forbidden act and a state of
mind that accompanied it.”). Some have criticized this assumption, suggesting it ought to
be replaced with an integrated actus reus and mens rea. See, e.g., Douglas N. Husak,
Philosophy of Criminal Law 126 (1987) (advocating for this integration “as an indivisible
product of both what one thinks and what one does”).
17. See Teneille Brown & Emily Murphy, Through a Scanner Darkly: Functional
Neuroimaging as Evidence of a Criminal Defendant’s Past Mental States, 62 Stan. L. Rev.
1119, 1129–30 (2010) (“Because we cannot presently read someone’s mind to determine
her mens rea at the time of the crime, the jury is often told it can rely on the objective
circumstances surrounding the criminal’s conduct to draw inferences about her state of
mind.”).
18. See, e.g., James A. Macleod, Belief States in Criminal Law, 68 Okla. L. Rev. 497,
502–03, 514–34 (2016) (drawing on experimental epistemology to criticize how juries
likely decide on the presence of a mental state).