This guide contains the
following sections:
•
About Writing in Biology
• Types of Writing in
Biology
• Evidence in Biology
•
Conventions of Writing in
Biology
• Citations & Formatting
• Common Errors in
Writing in Biology
• Further Resources for
Writing in Biology
The Disciplinary Writing Guides are
designed to provide an introduction to
the conventions, or rules, of writing in
different subjects. These guides have
been designed by Southwestern
professors to help you understand what
will be expected of you in your classes.
By Dr. Romi Burks
& Dr. Maria Todd
Guide for Writing in Biology
About Writing in Biology
Why Good Writing Really Matters in Biology
Strong writing skills in biology facilitate professional success in
multiple arenas, from securing job employment to professional school
admission to obtaining grants for future research. Quality writing
exemplifies the basic skills expected of a trained biologist: organization,
attention to detail, evidence-based decision making and critical analysis.
We estimate that professional biologists spend at least one third of their
time writing in some form. The study and practice of scientific writing
plays an equally critical role in a scientist’s education as the acquisition of
scientific knowledge.
Writing in biology does not need to be boring. In fact, successful
writing strives for just the opposite. The most convincing science comes
together as a compelling story and quality writing helps deliver the
intended message to the appropriate audience. It is critical that the author
makes specific effort to engage the readership and justify the time,
investment, and implication of the work presented, whether that work
involves basic or applied research. The written work of biologists reflects
the perceived quality of their science. In other words, if you produce
shoddy writing, then people think you do shoddy science.
Biologists primarily write for other biologists or a broader
scientific audience. Types of “scientific writing” vary from abstracts to lab
reports to full-length manuscripts about research outcomes. However,
with the growing recognition of the need to communicate science to the
general public, biologists also now find themselves writing about biology
research for primarily non-technical audiences. We refer to this as “writing
about science” rather than “scientific writing.”
About
this guide
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Types of Writing in Biology
Biology as a discipline involves multiple areas of study that often intersect or develop their own specialized
conventions. The face of biology writing continues to change with the increase in the interdisciplinary nature of science.
Unlike other disciplines (e.g., psychology or chemistry), no one society or organization dictates the standards of writing
in biology. Citations and reference materials routinely appear in journal-specific formats. In other words, a molecular
biology paper may differ somewhat in its construction from that of a molecular ecology paper. In terms of content,
biologists strive for accurate and concise statements supported by peer-reviewed evidence whenever available. Across
core areas of biology, however, the basic structure of peer-reviewed publications remains consistent.
Why No Set “Rules” Exist for Writing in Biology
Publishing in Biology: Follow the Directions
In terms of writing style, papers in biology must meet agreed upon standards for organization, clarity, coherency
and consistency in form (i.e., voice, tense, notation, citation, figures, etc.). In traditional outlets for sharing results
(peer-reviewed journals), biologists do not get paid for writing papers. In fact, journals often charge authors a certain
amount per page to publish. This practice literally makes every word count. A biologist must learn how to
convey the key results in the fewest words possible. Authors of journal articles must carefully read and adhere to the
“Guide to Authors” for each specific journal before submitting a manuscript. If the manuscript gets rejected, the authors
may submit it to another journal but only after they have reformatted it according to the specific journal guidelines. Your
own writing in different biology courses is designed to mimic this professional process of scientific publication.
The Interdisciplinary Nature of Writing in Biology
Biology involves the study of life at many levels from the macro (e.g., ecological habitat) to the micro (e.g., cell
behavior) to the molecular (e.g., DNA sequence). Often, the most groundbreaking research occurs at the intersection of
these different sub-disciplines, most notably in the emerging fields of molecular ecology, molecular neuroscience, and
translational medicine—all of which now have their own journals. Regardless of the subject, authors must follow the
directions for any journal.
Research
Proposals or
Grants
Proposals typically undergo peer review and usually include a short justification for the
work, proposed methods, hypotheses, and expected results along with the broader
implications of the work. Depending on the approach, some proposals may include
broader impacts as defined by the National Science Foundation. Broader impacts might
include making the results of the science available to the public, training students or
contributing to solve a problem in society. Several small grant opportunities exist for
undergraduate biologists, and practicing the art of writing grants can help you learn to
justify your science.
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Abstracts
Abstracts serve as a summary of either a research paper or a poster. As such, an abstract
contains the most relevant information from each section of the document including a
1-2 sentence introduction, the major objective(s), methodological approaches used,
major findings and a short interpretation of the data. In most fields, it is acceptable to
provide 1-2 sentences highlighting the implications of the research. You will write
abstracts when you apply to present results at a scientific meeting.
Laboratory reports communicate the findings of a single experiment or short set of
experiments. The report usually includes a brief experimental objective (usually one
sentence), a short introduction (to provide the context for the research), description
of the methods used, a detailed report of the data obtained (including relevant tables
and figures), and an interpretation of the results.
Research
Manuscripts
Research manuscripts are primary literature that communicate results of scientific
experiments. They vary in length from “short notes” that highlight a notable result to “full
length reports” that describe a more lengthy series of experiments that tell a more
complete story. In addition to the standard sections of a paper (see above), these research
manuscripts (referred to as publications once they have completed the process) also
include acknowledgments of financial and technical aid and a list of references/resources.
Review
Papers
Review papers are secondary literature that provide a comprehensive summary of
the published findings relating to a broad or highly specialized topic in biology and are
useful resources for scientists entering a new field. Following the gathering of the
relevant primary literature, the authors of a review deftly synthesize the material into a
structured, coherent, and accurately referenced narrative.
Primary
Literature
Critiques
Primary literature critiques examine the content and quality of a publication. To
conduct a comprehensive review, the person conducting the critique needs first to put
the critiqued paper in context, then to identify the take home message, and finally to
examine the details associated with the methods and results. Overall, critique authors
need to consider the readability of the manuscript and identify whether it conforms to
the expected guidelines. Primary literature critiques generally include strengths and
weaknesses of both the experiments described as well as the writing style.
Laboratory
Reports
Laboratory
Notebooks
Laboratory notebooks serve two purposes. First, they act as a technical resource and
reference for other scientists in the lab. Secondly, lab notebooks provide an authentic,
verifiable record of the research performed by a particular individual. Lab notebooks
constitute an accurate record of a scientist’s research activities, and the content within
varies from scientist to scientist. However, when a scientist leaves a lab, their notebook
(which is the property of the lab) remains behind. Consequently, you need to include
legible, accurate and detailed information in your lab notebook. Information should
never be deleted from the notebook. All entries should be dated.
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For each of these sections, different types of research are required. First, the communication
object or artifact being analyzed must be researched. You will provide context for the object
Primary sources
Usually taking the form of journal
articles, primary sources contain
analysis of original data and ideas that
represent the first published record
of that study. Quality primary
literature has undergone peer-
review (the quality of which varies)
by the scientific community prior to
publication. Most primary literature
papers follow a traditional format:
abstract, introduction, methods,
results, and discussion. The abstract
should be a stand-alone paragraph
summarizing the entire study. Please
note that you must read an entire
primary source; relying only on the
abstract as a source is unacceptable.
Secondary sources
Often referred to as “review papers,”
secondary sources include publications
that compile and synthesize
information from primary literature.
Secondary sources may rearrange or
modify data, looking for connections
between several publications, or they
may conduct “metadata” analyses on
information compiled from other
sources. These analyses look for
patterns in data conducted by other
researchers. Some secondary sources,
particularly those found in book
chapters, may be peer-reviewed.
However, secondary sources do not
represent original data or ideas to the
extent that primary literature does.
Mainstream sources
Other, non peer-reviewed sources
(newspapers, encyclopedias,
textbooks, etc.) may discuss science
more generally or provide background
information instead of new
discoveries. Writing about science
efforts usually rely more heavily on
review summaries, websites, and
other forms of science translation to
support a story. Certain websites
(especially institutional websites or
government sites) provide valuable
information for biologists, but you
should exercise caution in how much
you depend on websites for
information. Wikipedia does not
count as a reliable source.
Posters
Posters act as a visual aid for an interactive oral presentation by the scientist. The visual
design of a poster therefore requires a certain amount of creativity in addition to technical
flair. Having said that, the written content and data presentation should conform to the
same high standards as that of a research paper.
Writing
About
Science
These assignments employ the same general skill sets as scientific writing but use more
common language and style to increase engagement with the reader. Blog posts,
persuasive essays, tweets, discussion forums, or informative pieces that translate
scientific journal articles represent examples of writing about science. In general, we
find that approaches to improve writing reach across both enterprises (i.e., scientific
writing and writing about science) but certain conventions appear more often in
scientific writing (e.g., use of SI units, citation of primary literature, use of scientific
versus common names, etc.)
Evidence in Biology
Once you understand the writing of professional biologists, it’s easy to see how these practices are reflected
in the writing you’ll do for your courses. Scientific writing in biology incorporates peer-reviewed literature to
justify the need for the study (Introduction), refers to methodology (Methods), or places the work in a comparative
or broader context (Discussion). In their introductions, biologists may include other mainstream sources, but these
sources do not replace peer-reviewed ones. Peer-reviewed literature comes in two forms: primary or secondary.
For the results sections, information about the data provides the evidence for any speculation included in the
discussion. You might think about the evidence used in biology writing as consisting of four categories: primary
sources, secondary sources, mainstream sources, and data.
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Conventions of Writing in Biology
or skew the interpretation of the results. Regardless of
form, presentations of data need proper labeling and
descriptions that give the work context. All presentations of
data should contain sufficient labeling and description so
that they can stand alone outside the paper. In terms of
numerical analysis, authors should present averages
accompanied by a measure of variation (mostly commonly
one SD [standard deviation] or one SE [standard error])
instead of including individual raw data. When tests for
statistical significance have been performed, p values should
be always be reported, along with the appropriate test
statistic (e. g., F for ANOVA, R for correlation analyses, R
2
for regression). Regarding agarose or polyacrylamide gel
images, bands need to be visible with an indication of their
molecular weight where appropriate and the contents of the
lanes need to be labeled.
Although there are no set “rules” for writing in biology, scientific writing generally adheres to a set of
conventions you should follow in your papers. Below are a few frequently asked questions about the
conventions of writing in biology.
Mainstream sources (continued):
When evaluating websites, you should consider the
accuracy of the content, the authority (i.e., credentials)
of the author(s), the currency (up-to-date nature) of the
information, the objectiveness of the website, and the
coverage provided. It is often best to check with your
professor before you rely on a website as a source.
Laboratory reports may contain references to textbooks
or lab manuals.
Data
Data in papers is presented in many forms, including
graphs, tables, pictures (e.g., gel photos), or schematics.
Presentation of data may be tweaked to improve clarity
but should never ever alter the authenticity of the data
Who is the audience for scientific papers?
The majority of scientific articles are written in English, but it important to remember that English is not the native
language of many of the world’s scientists. Therefore, it is imperative that writers use correct English,
free of colloquialisms, jargon, country-specific slang, and cultural references.
In general, biologists write to an audience in third person to maintain a professional tone.
What subtle differences occur between writing in subdisciplines of biology?
The degree of creativity used in the construction of manuscript and poster titles varies between subdisciplines. Whereas
ecologists often convey the science in the context of a witty metaphor, cell and molecular biologists almost always
conform to conventional use of purely technical titles.
Scientists trained in ecology write with an emphasis on active voice. Cell biologists instead emphasize the exclusive use of
passive voice when training students to write. Molecular biologists, on the other hand, favor the passive voice but do use
the active voice sparingly for emphasis.
You can remember these conventions by understanding that ecologists study organisms that “act” (e.g., the snail moved)
versus the more inanimate objects generally being acted upon (e.g., the pipette was moved; the solution was mixed) in
cell and molecular biology.
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When, if ever, should one quote instead of paraphrase?
Rarely quote. In scientific writing, you need to avoid quotes 99.9% of the time. In review papers or perhaps in
introductions of manuscripts, special exceptions to the “rarely quote rule” may occur when paying homage to
historical scientific figures or a well-accepted adage (e.g., “nothing makes sense except in the light of evolution”
by T. Dobzhansky). Instead of quoting, biologists paraphrase the content of sources in their own words and then
provide the proper citation. No excuse ever exists for direct copying of text from any resource.
Formatting & Citation for Writing in Biology
No single citation style applies to all subdisciplines of biology. You must therefore read and follow the
guidelines for a particular publication or class assignment. If none is specified, the CSE style is typical (links to
examples of this style are available in the “Student Resources” section of the Debby Ellis Writing Center website).
Generally, citations for peer-reviewed primary literature include authors, year, title, journal,
volume (issue) and pages. Within text, biologists commonly use parenthetical notation to refer to sources,
figures or statistical support. Sources typically occur in a “Name and Year” format (i.e., Burks & Todd 2015) with
or without a comma depending on the journal. Statistical tests, programs, and instrumental parameters can also
appear in parentheses. We recommended consulting examples from the specific target journal. Footnotes rarely
appear in scientific papers, although a few select publications use a numbered reference superscript to refer to the
list of references (e.g., Nature and Science).
A Few Last Tips for Avoiding Common Errors
Latin Names: It is important that you pay special attention to formatting when using Latin.
•
Ecology-side: Genus and species of any organism is always in italics or underlined. Genus is capitalized. Species is
not. Examples: Pomacea maculata
• Molecular-side: The formatting conventions for genes and their products vary from species to species. It is
important to use the correct convention for the species of interest and to apply the format consistently
throughout the text.
• You might also consult websites devoted to specific species contain formatting information, e.g., The National
Center for Biotechnology Information (bacteria), flybase.org (flies), or genenames.org (humans).
Chemical formulae must be written correctly. “CO
2
” is the molecule carbon dioxide. “CO2” (no subscript) is
meaningless.
Voice & Tense: In most cases, use active voice, past tense. Active voice means that the subject of the sentence
performed the verb. Past tense means that the action has already occurred. In addition, consider person (1
st
[ I ] vs. 3
rd
[
The organisms ], almost never 2
nd
[you]) and subject/verb agreement (in both number and tense)
• We hypothesized. (1
st
person, plural, active, present)
• We tested. (1
st
person, plural, active, past)
• The subject was tested. (3
rd
person, singular, passive, past)
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Units: All units of measure must be metric or SI (International system). If you need to convert, online tools are available at
goconvert.com and at the website of the Bates College guide listed in the “Sources & Further Resources” section of this
guide.
Contractions: Do not use contractions in formal writing.
Because vs. Since: “Since” implies time. “Because” gives a reason. Although in other disciplines these words may be
interchangeable, successful biology writers avoid using “since” when “because” represents the better choice.
Affect vs. Effect: “Affect” is a verb. “Effect” is a noun.
While vs. Although: “While” means “simultaneously.” If you mean to contrast two things, try “although,” or “whereas.”
i.e. vs. e.g.: The first means “that is” (Latin id est) and is followed by an explanation. The second means “for example”
(Latin exempli gratia) is followed by an example.
Data: “Data are.” Use the plural.
Species: The word is both singular and plural.
Style Guides for Scientific
Writing:
Day, R. A. & B. Gastel. 2011. How to
Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, 7
th
edition. Greenwood Press, 300 pages.
Graff, G. & C. Birkenstein. 2010. They
Say I Say: The Moves That Matter in
Academic Writing, 2
nd
edition. W. W.
Norton and Company, 245 pages.
Strunk, W. Jr. & E. B. White. 1999. The
Elements of Style, 4
th
edition. Longman
Publishing, 105 pages.
Bedford/St. Martin’s Writer’s Help.
Books for Writing About Science:
Blum, D., M. Knudson & R. Marantz Henig. 2006. A Field Guide for Science
Writers: The Official Guide of the National Association of Science Writers. Oxford
University Press, 321 pages.
Hancock, E. 2003. Ideas Into Words: Mastering the Craft of Science Writing. The John
Hopkins University Press, 151 pages.
Hayden, T. & M. Nijhuis (eds). 2013. The Science Writers’ Handbook: Everything You
Need to Know to Pitch, Publish, and Prosper in the Digital Age. DaCapo Press, 308
pages.
Zinsser, W. 2006. On Writing Well: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction, 7
th
edition. Harper Collins Publishing, 321 pages.
McMillan, Victoria E. (2012). Writing Papers in the Biological Sciences, 5
th
edition.
Boston; Bedford/St Martin’s.
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Scientific Writing:
Bourne, P. E. 2005. Ten simple
rules for getting published. PLoS
Comput Biol 1(5): e57.
Gillen, C. M. 2007. Reading
primary literature: A practical guide
to evaluating research articles in
biology. Benjamin Cummins
Publishing.
Gopen, George D., & J. A. Swan. 1990.
The science of scientific writing.
American
Scientist 78: 550-558.
Nicholas, K. A. & W. S. Gordon. 2011.
A quick guide to writing a solid peer
review. EOS 92(28): 233-240.
Wells, W. 2004. Me write pretty one
day: how to write a good scientific
paper. The Journal of Cell Biology 165(6):
757–758.
General Websites for Writing
in Biology:
“Writing in Biology” O’Donnell, B.
University of Connecticut Writing
Center.
“How to Write a Paper in Scientific
Journal Style and Format” Bates
College Department of Biology.
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