DISSERTATION 1 Communication for Personal Relationships: A

DISSERTATION

Communication for Personal Relationships: A Qualitative Study on Taylor Swift’s Music

Videos and Message-Design Logics Theory

Matthew J. Magliocca

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Liberty University

2023

APPROVED BY:

Andrea Scott, Ph.D., Committee Chair

Marie Mallory, Ph.D., Committee Member

Robert Mott, Ph.D., Committee Member

DISSERTATION

Abstract

This dissertation focuses on Barbara O’Keefe’s message-design logics theory and Taylor Swift’s

music videos on YouTube. The first chapter provides background information and study

elements for the project, focusing on the scholarly area of communication, the problem

statement, the purpose statement, research questions, and definitions. The second chapter

reviews the relevant literature associated with message-design logics theory and music videos on

YouTube. The third chapter discusses the dissertation’s methodology, focusing on the study’s

approach, framework, setting, instruments, procedures, analyses, and trustworthiness. The fourth

chapter features the results of the research questions about Swift’s music videos and message-

design logics theory. The fifth chapter includes the discussion, implications, delimitations and

limitations, and future research of the project.

Keywords: message-design logics theory, Taylor Swift, music videos, YouTube

DISSERTATION

Dedication

I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my late maternal grandmother, Mary Lyda

Magliocca, for loving me unconditionally, cheering me on with my academics, and teaching me

to be kind to everyone. Although I lost her when I was 16, she instilled values in me that will last

forever. I hope that she is dancing in Heaven and is proud of me.

I would also like to dedicate this work to the Swifties who have inspired me to complete

this communication research on Taylor Swift’s music videos, especially Sam Baker.

DISSERTATION

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge Dr. Scott, Dr. Mallory, Dr. Hepburn, and Dr. Mott. I am

grateful for the guidance, support, and wisdom that you all have provided me.

I would also like to acknowledge my parents, James and Arlene Magliocca. Without your

love and guidance, I would not have become the valedictorian of NCHS, graduated with my BA

and MA from SRU, or completed a PhD program.

Additionally, I would like to acknowledge my sister and brother-in-law, Melissa and

Shawn, who are two of my best friends.

DISSERTATION

Table of Contents

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………...….2

Dedication...........…....…………………………………………………………………………….4

Acknowledgments…...…………………………………………………………………………….5

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………….6

List of Figures.....………………………………………………………………………………...11

Chapter One: Introduction...………………………………………………………………...…...12

Overview……………..……………………………………………………………………...…...12

Scholarly Area of Communication………..………………………………………………...…...12

Background on Taylor Swift……………………………………………………………...……...13

Swift’s Career……………………………………………………………………...…….13

Swift’s Music……………………………………………………………………...……..15

Taylor Swift.….…………………………………………………….............…….16

Fearless…………………………………………………………….............…….16

Speak Now.…………………………………………………………….............…17

Red…….………………………………………………………….............……...17

1989…………………………………………………………….............…….......18

reputation.…………………………………………………………….............….18

Lover…………………………………………………………….............…….....19

folklore.…………………………………………………………….............…….19

evermore…………………………………………………………….............…...20

Midnights…………………………………………………………….............…..20

DISSERTATION

Links to Swift’s Music Videos...……………………………….............……......21

Swift’s Personal Life and Music Connections…..………………………………...……..21

Background on Message-Design Logics Theory………………………………………………...22

Problem Statement…………………………………………………………….............……........25

Purpose Statement…………………………………………………………….............…….........26

Significance of the Study..…………………………………………………….............……........26

Research Questions…………………………...……………………………….............……........27

Definitions……….…………………………………………………………….............……........28

Summary………...…………………………………………………………….............……........29

Chapter Two: Literature Review…......……………………………………….............……........30

Chapter Overview………………………………………………………………………………..30

Situation to Communication Tradition.…………………………………………………...……..30

Craig’s Seven Traditions....................................................................................................30

Existing Communication Scholarship on Swift.................................................................34

Theoretical and Biblical Framework……………………...……………………………………..36

Related Literature on Message-Design Logics Theory………………………………………….38

Early Studies by O’Keefe and Others...………………………………………………….38

Studies on the Founding of Message-Design Logics Theory................................39

Studies about Logics with Storytelling and Memories…………………………..44

Studies Related to Health………………………………………………………………...45

Studies about Patients’ Preferences with Logics………………………………...46

Studies about Disclosing Health with Friends or Family………………………..47

Studies about Nurses and Logics………………………………………………...48

DISSERTATION

Miscellaneous Studies on Health and Logics……………………………………48

Studies Related to Personal Conversations……………………………………………....50

Studies Related to Business and School…………………………………………………51

Studies Related to Politics and Digital Tools……………………………………………53

Political Messaging with Logics………………………………………………....53

The Influence of Logics………………………………………………………….54

Social Robots and Logics………………………………………………………...55

Synthesis of the Factors of Message-Design Logics Theory.............................................55

Factors about the Most Effective Logics...............................................................55

Factors about the Most Used Logics.....................................................................58

General Factors about Message-Design Logics Theory........................................61

Related Literature on Music Videos………………………………………………………...…...68

Elements of Music Videos……………………………………………………………….68

Music Videos and the Youth...............…………………………………………………...68

Music Videos and Education…………………………………………………………….69

Music Videos and Substance Depictions………………………………………………...70

Music Videos and Product Placements…………………………………………………..72

Music Videos and Cultural Contexts…………………………………………………….72

Music Videos and Engagements from Fans.....…………………………………………..74

Social Media and Visualization Content...........................................................................77

Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………78

Chapter Three: Methodology…………………………………………………………………….80

Chapter Overview………………………………………………………………………………..80

DISSERTATION

Research Method and Design……………………………………………………………………80

Research Questions………………………………………………………………………………81

Setting……………………………………………………………………………………………82

Instruments……………………………………………………………………………………….82

Procedures………………………………………………………………………………………..85

Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………….87

Biblical Considerations…………………………………………………………………………..89

Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………………………………...89

Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………90

Chapter Four: Results...........…………………………………………………………………….91

Chapter Overview………………………………………………………………………………..91

Research Questions………………………………………………………………………………91

Participants and Instruments..……………………………………………………………………92

Results of Research Questions...…………………………………………………………………94

Research Question One..…………………………………………………………………95

Research Question Two.………………………....……………………………………..106

Taylor Swift.….…………………………………………………….............…...107

Fearless…………………………………………………………….............…...107

Speak Now.……………………………………………………………...............108

Red…….………………………………………………………….............…….109

1989…………………………………………………………….............…….....110

reputation.……………………………………………………………................110

Lover…………………………………………………………….............……...111

DISSERTATION

folklore, evermore, and Midnights…….………..……………….............……...112

Research Question Three...……………………………………………………………..118

Summary………………………………………………………………………………………..121

Chapter Five: Discussion......…………………………………………………………………...125

Chapter Overview………………………………………………………………………………125

Summary of Results...…………………………………………………………………………..125

Discussion..................…………………………………………………………………………..128

Implications................…………………………………………………………………………..135

Theoretical........................……………………………………………………………...135

Methodological.................……………………………………………………………...136

Communication Traditions...…………………………………………………………...137

Practical.......................................……………………………………………………….138

Delimitations and Limitations....………………………………………………………………..138

Future Research….……………………………………………………………………………..139

Summary………………………………………………………………………………………..141

References………………………………………………………………………………………142

Appendix A..................................................................................................................................160

Appendix B..................................................................................................................................162

DISSERTATION

List of Figures

Figure 1: Taylor Swift’s Social Media Accounts as of July 2023

Figure 2: O’Keefe’s Evaluative Criteria for Message-Design Logics Theory

Figure 3: Holistic Data on the Factors about the Most Effective Logics

Figure 4: Holistic Data on the Factors about the Most Used Logics

Figure 5: Holistic Overview of Studies on Message-Design Logics Theory

Figure 6: Holistic Overview of the Main Factors and Findings on Message-Design Logics

Theory

Figure 7: A Holistic Summary of Substances in Music Videos Across Genres

Figure 8: Holistic Overview of Studies on Music Videos within YouTube

Figure 9: Example of Procedure for Step Two

Figure 10: Example of Procedure for Step Four

Figure 11: Example of Procedure for Step Five

Figure 12: O’Keefe’s Evaluative Criteria for Message-Design Logics Theory

Figure 13: Data on the Topics Present in Swift’s Music Videos

Figure 14: Data on the Prominent Themes in Swift’s Lyrics

Figure 15: Data on the Most Used Words in Swift’s Lyrics

Figure 16: Data on the Visualizations in Swift’s Music Videos

Figure 17: Concise Summary of the Findings on Message-Design Logics Theory

Figure 18: Data on the Logics Used in Swift’s Music Videos

Figure 19: Data on the Most Used Logics in Swift’s Most-Liked Music Videos

Figure 20: Data on the Alignment of Topics and Logics for Swift’s Music Videos

Figure 21: Personal Photographs of Swift Owned by Dissertation Author, Matthew Magliocca

DISSERTATION

Chapter One: Introduction

Chapter Overview

Taylor Swift has released hundreds of songs and dozens of music videos that have been

streamed billions of times, has survived a cancellation campaign sparked by Kanye West, and

has won countless awards, which is why the artist is relevant and essential to be examined in the

communication discipline. This chapter will provide background information and study elements

for the project on message-design logics theory and Taylor Swift’s music videos. First, this

chapter will discuss the dissertation’s scholarly area of communication with a focus on

messaging. Second, this section will include background information on Swift’s career, music,

communication history, and personal life. Third, this chapter will address background

information on Barbara O’Keefe’s message-design logics theory, focusing on expressive,

conventional, and rhetorical logics. Then, this section will address the problem statement,

purpose statement, and research questions about Swift’s videos and O’Keefe’s theory. Last, this

chapter will include definitions related to Swift and communication that are relevant to the study.

Collectively, this section will introduce readers to the topic if they are unaware of Swift and

message-design logics theory and will illustrate why individuals should care about this topic

centered in mass communication about personal relationships.

Scholarly Area of Communication

The scholarly area of interest for this study was mass communication. According to

Deuze (2020), mass communication focuses on how and why messages are crafted for,

disseminated to, and examined by large audiences through different mediums. This area of

communication was relevant for the proposed project because it centers on a musician’s music

videos that have been viewed by millions of people through different platforms, such as

DISSERTATION

YouTube, and the different logics utilized within the lyrics and visualizations. Alvarez-Mon et

al. (2018) conducted a study on mass communication and Tweets to identify how many different

uploads exist for different topics, proving that the scholarly area is appropriate for projects that

seek to identify individual subject matters in larger spaces, which was done with Swift’s music

videos.

Background on Taylor Swift

This section will provide background information on Swift to help readers better

understand the analysis of lyrics, visualizations, and logics. First, a general overview of Swift’s

career will be provided, focusing on the singer’s progression, awards, communication history,

and social media accounts to showcase why she is relevant to study in the communication

discipline. Second, a detailed description of Swift’s albums will be provided, focusing on Taylor

Swift, Fearless, Speak Now, Red, 1989, reputation, Lover, folklore, evermore, and Midnights.

Last, Swift’s personal life will be discussed, focusing on the musician’s faith, family,

friendships, relationships, and real-life song inspirations.

Swift’s Career

Throughout the 21st century, Swift has had a successful and dynamic career, creating

songs and corresponding visualizations. According to Ray (2022), Swift sang The Star-Spangled

Banner live for the first time in 2000 at a Philadelphia 76ers game and moved from Pennsylvania

to Tennessee to pursue a music career in 2002. The researcher also explains that Swift began her

songwriting career in 2004 with Sony/ATV and her professional singing career in 2006 with Big

Machine. Since 2006, Swift (n.d.) has released 10 studio albums of different genres, which will

be discussed in depth in the next section. Grammy Awards (n.d.) explains that Swift has won 11

of 46 nominations, being “the first and only woman solo artist to win the Grammy for Album Of

DISSERTATION

The Year thrice for her solo recordings,” including Fearless, 1989, and folklore (para. 3).

Additionally, Grein (2022) mentions that Swift has won 14 Video Music Awards, being the only

artist ever to win three for video of the year, and Trust (2022) reveals that Swift is the only artist

in history to hold the top 10 spots on the Billboard charts at the same time. According to Concert

Archives (2023), Swift has held almost 1,000 concerts and has had five main album tours for

Fearless, Speak Now, Red, 1989, and reputation, but there were no tours for Lover, folklore, and

evermore partly because of the COVID-19 pandemic.

According to New York University [NYU] (2022), Swift received an honorary doctorate

in fine arts because of her massive success in the music industry, selling over 100 million albums

by bridging together different genres, demographics, and age groups. Moreover, Swift was

NYU’s commencement speaker in 2022 because of her ability to communicate messages

forcefully, eloquently, and effectively to large groups of people. In this speech, Swift discussed

how the graduates were influenced by the stories told to them, why it is important to hold good

things and release bad things, why people should not hide their enthusiasm, how everyone is a

writer in different voices, and why certain mistakes cause individuals to lose or gain things

(NYU, 2022). Likewise, Swift has given numerous speeches at award shows, such as the

Grammys, Video Music Awards, and American Music Awards. Having said that, Swift has

earned various accolades in her teens, 20s, and now 30s because of her access to fans, consistent

usage of messaging and images, and strong publicity on social media, including Instagram,

Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, TikTok, and Snapchat (see Figure 1).

DISSERTATION

Figure 1

Taylor Swift’s Social Media Accounts as of July 2023

Swift’s Music

Since 2006, Swift has released music in different genres, including country, pop, adult

contemporary, and alternative, and has written or co-written every single song that she has

published (Madani, 2022). Starting in 2021, Swift has started to re-record her first six albums for

ownership purposes, referring to those works as “Taylor’s Version” (Espada, 2023, para. 1).

Ditum (2022) explains that The Times newspaper has declared Swift to be the Bob Dylan of her

generation because of her timeless lyrics and cultural significance. Also, Swift’s success with

50,000,000

100,000,000

150,000,000

200,000,000

250,000,000

300,000,000

Instagram Twitter Facebook YouTube TikTok Snapchat

Swift's Social Media Followers

DISSERTATION

music matters for this project because it validates how the artist is a popular communicator with

personal relationships and justifies why the artist’s works are relevant to be studied in

communication academia. Swift (2023) argues that her albums have been “excruciatingly

autobiographical” and that some of her songs explain “step-by-step” how to communicate, such

as for apologies (0:46-2:17). This section will discuss the different genres and subject matter of

the 10 albums, the corresponding music videos for the albums, and any awards or recognitions

for the albums.

Taylor Swift

Since 2006, Swift (n.d.) has released music that is relatable to people’s life experiences.

According to Pignetti (2020), Swift’s debut album explores themes of self-discovery, love,

heartbreak, and teenage experiences. Taylor Swift was the singer’s first album in the country

genre, capturing “the dreams and desires of a girl on the cusp of womanhood with candor,

intelligence, and sweetness” and keeping “things real and true to her own experience on her

winning premiere effort” (Apple Music, 2006, para. 1). This album captures the highs and lows

of romantic crushes and relationships and has five corresponding music videos, including Tim

McGraw, Teardrops On My Guitar, Our Song, I’m Only Me When I’m With You, and Picture

To Burn (Swift, n.d.). Swift was only 16 when the album was released, but the lyrics and

visualizations connected with millions of people, helping place the musician in the Top 40 on

Billboard (Grammy Awards, 2022).

Fearless

Fearless was Swift’s second album in the country genre, which helped the musician

“shift from teen sensation to a mature artist,” especially since the songs “ring out with angst and

delight in equal measure” (Apple Music, 2008, para. 1). According to Sloan (2021), Swift’s

DISSERTATION

Fearless is about taking risks, embracing love, being vulnerable, and gaining empowerment.

This album was categorized as country, but it integrated elements from the pop genre to appeal

to younger audience members. Like the debut album, this work captures the highs and lows of

romantic crushes and relationships but has seven corresponding music videos, including Change,

Love Story, White Horse, You Belong With Me, The Best Day, Fifteen, and Fearless (Swift,

n.d.). Swift was only 18 when the album was released, but Fearless managed to rank number one

on the Top 200 Billboard chart longer than any other album in the 2000s (Ray, 2022).

Speak Now

Speak Now was Swift’s third album in the country genre, which showcased the singer’s

“growth and assertiveness” through songs drawn from “personal experience,” “unpredictable

relationships,” and “vulnerability,” highlighting “creative and personal metamorphosis” (Apple

Music, 2010, para. 1). According to Franssen (2021), Swift did not have any collaborators on

Speak Now, enabling her to reveal her thoughts, feelings, and observations directly. This album

was different from the previous two because some of the songs were publicly known to be about

Swift’s previous lovers. This work has almost as many music videos as Fearless, including

Mine, Back to December, Mean, The Story of Us, Sparks Fly, and Ours (Swift, n.d.). While

Speak Now was nominated for best country album at the Grammys, it did not win like the

previous work (Grammy Awards, n.d.).

Red

Red was Swift’s fourth and final album in the country genre, which represented “her taste

for vengeance, her hot-blooded romantic streak, and the neon-lit pulse of a dance floor” (Apple

Music, 2012, para. 1). According to Pignetti (2020), Swift’s Red explores the theme of growth,

explaining experiences with clear beginnings, middles, and ends. This album also appealed to a

DISSERTATION

broader audience because of songs that could connect with men and women’s romantic

relationships. This work has as many music videos as Fearless, including We Are Never Ever

Getting Back Together, Begin Again, I Knew You Were Trouble, 22, Everything Has Changed,

Red, and The Last Time (Swift, n.d.). In addition, Ray (2022) explains that Red “sold 1.2 million

copies—the highest one-week total in 10 years” and that We Are Never Ever Getting Back

Together was her “first number-one hit on the Billboard pop singles chart,” even though the

majority of the album was comprised of country works (para. 8).

1989

1989 was Swift’s fifth album but the first one in the pop genre, which was named after

the singer’s birth year because the music was inspired by elements from the 1980s (Apple Music,

2014). According to Dubrofsky (2016), Swift’s 1989 is about developing independence, having

fun, and building connections with others. This work of art was different from anything Swift

had done before because there were no songs with country components. This album has as many

music videos as Fearless and Red, including Shake It Off, Blank Space, Style, Bad Blood,

Wildest Dreams, Out of the Woods, and New Romantics (Swift, n.d.). The first and second

released videos of 1989 have remained Swift’s most viewed visual works, being watched billions

of times on YouTube. Similar to the success of Fearless, this album sold “more than five million

copies in the United States and earned Swift her second Grammy for album of the year” (Ray,

2022, para. 9).

reputation

reputation was Swift’s sixth album and second one in the pop genre, which illustrated the

singer’s “full-scale artistic transformation” with “dark,” “meaningful,” “catchy,” “lived-in,”

“pointed,” and “provocative” songs (Apple Music, 2017, para. 1). According to McCamley

DISSERTATION

(2020), Swift’s reputation explores themes of fame, perception, media, and growth. This work

was released after Kayne West lied about getting authorization from Swift to call her a

misogynistic term in a song, causing people to get upset and not believe Swift; however, the

singer was validated four years later after audio leaked from their phone call (Chiu, 2022). This

album has fewer music videos than the previous projects, including Look What You Made Me

Do, Ready For It?, End Game, and Delicate, potentially because the singer was still recovering

from the cancellation movement sparked by West (Swift, n.d.). The tour connected with

reputation became the highest-grossing 2018 tour in North America, even with West stirring up

trouble and seeking to ruin Swift’s reputation (Ray, 2022).

Lover

Lover was Swift’s seventh album and third one in the pop genre, which focused on love,

politics, and equality (Apple Music, 2019). This album was monumental for Swift because it was

the first time the musician sang about politics, which was discussed in Miss Americana on

Netflix. Swift is a lifelong Christian and felt the need to enter the political space after politicians

like former President Trump and Senator Marsha Blackburn were not upholding “Tennessee

Christian values” (Swift, 2020). According to McCamley (2020), Swift’s Lover is about love in

different forms, highlighting effective ways to communicate with someone romantically. This

album has as many music videos as reputation, including ME!, You Need To Calm Down,

Lover, and The Man (Swift, n.d.). The album won many awards, such as best pop album at the

American Music Awards and iHeartRadio Music Awards, but it did not get nominated for a

Grammy, even though it was the best-selling work of 2019 (Ray, 2022).

folklore

DISSERTATION

folklore was Swift’s eighth album and the first one in the alternative genre, which was

inspired by isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic when the singer was 30 years old (Apple

Music, 2020b). This album marked a third transition for Swift, proving that the musician could

be successful not only with country and pop but also with alternative indie. According to Sloan

(2021), Swift’s folklore explores themes of loss, love, and self-reflection through vivid

storytelling techniques. This work was the first time Swift released only one music video, which

was titled cardigan, likely because of the limited resources due to the pandemic (Swift, n.d.).

Unlike with Lover, Swift won a Grammy for the album of the year that included songs with

alternative storytelling and named characters (Grammy Awards, n.d.).

evermore

evermore was Swift’s ninth album and second one in the alternative genre, being coined

as a sister album to folklore because of similar storytelling (Apple Music, 2020a). This work was

released about five months after folklore, being the shortest length of time between albums.

According to Franssen (2021), Swift’s evermore is about introspection, love, and longing in

healthy and unhealthy manners. Like the previous album, evermore only had one music video,

which was titled willow, likely because of the limited resources due to the pandemic (Swift,

n.d.). Unlike the previous album, evermore did not win a Grammy during the next ceremony

(Grammy Awards, n.d.).

Midnights

Midnights was Swift’s 10th album and return to the pop genre, which illustrated “the

stories of 13 sleepless nights,” integrating “slower tempos, hushed atmosphere, and negative

space like night sky” (Apple Music, 2022, para. 3). Similar to Swift’s entrance into the pop genre

with 1989, this album broke records because of people’s excitement to hear the musician

DISSERTATION

perform pop pieces. There have only been two music videos released as of October 2022,

including Anti-Hero and Bejeweled, but there are expected to be more because it has been

categorized as a visual album (Swift, n.d.). This album has been connected with Swift’s The Eras

Tour, which sold millions of tickets on the first day of sales and broke the record for most single-

day ticket sales on Ticketmaster (Irvin, 2022).

Links to Swift’s Music Videos

Appendix A focuses on Swift’s music videos for 10 albums, including Taylor Swift,

Fearless, Speak Now, Red, 1989, reputation, Lover, folklore, evermore, and Midnights. This

appendix contains a chart of the 45 music videos with their corresponding album titles and URL

links for YouTube. The purpose of this appendix is to help one conceptualize and access Swift’s

various works that are examined in this study.

Swift’s Personal Life and Music Connections

Swift is a lifelong Christian and consistently communicates with her parents and brother

(Rizzo, 2021). Throughout the last few decades, Swift has been in relatively public relationships

and friendships with fellow celebrities, writing songs that are based on her real life (Today,

2010). On Swift’s debut album, the song Tim McGraw was written for the musician’s ex-

boyfriend from high school who went away to college. The song was named after the couple’s

favorite singer, was created to remind them of their happy memories together, and illustrated

how to amicably communicate with a high school sweetheart who moves away (Mamo, 2021).

From Swift’s second album, the song Love Story was written about her ex, Joe Jonas, was

inspired by Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, and illustrated how to communicate with someone

in secrecy when parents do not approve (Dresdale, 2021). Dear John, from Swift’s third country

album, was written about her ex John Mayer who is significantly older than the musician,

DISSERTATION

exemplified the toxic components of their relationship, and illustrated how to publicly call out

someone’s poor, manipulative behavior (Rolling Stone, 2012). On Swift’s final country album,

the song Begin Again was written about Conor Kennedy who helped the musician move on from

a previous relationship, exemplified how people can hold back or support others, and illustrated

how to respectfully communicate with a new romantic partner (Billboard Staff, 2017).

From Swift’s first pop album, the song Bad Blood was written about a fellow artist who

was accused of trying to sabotage the musician’s tour by recruiting already hired staff members,

exemplified how friendships can be destroyed, and illustrated how to firmly defend one’s self in

a verbal or nonverbal argument (Lang, 2019). The Man, from the album Lover, was written

about Swift’s ex-manager who purchased the rights to all of the musician’s songs, exemplified

sexism in the music industry, and illustrated how to firmly communicate and defend one’s self in

favor of basic rights, respect, and power imbalances (Hodak, 2019). On Swift’s first alternative

album, the song cardigan was written about Joe Alwyn whom the musician dated for

approximately six years, exemplified how someone can make another person see their worth, and

illustrated how to communicate appreciation and gratitude toward loved ones (Bailey, 2020a).

From Swift’s second alternative album, the song willow was also written about Joe Alwyn,

exemplified the power of falling in love, and illustrated how to communicate with others about

the potential of entering a long-term romantic relationship (Bailey, 2020b). On Swift’s 10th

album, the song Bejeweled was written about an experience at the Met Gala, exemplified the

importance of understanding one’s self-worth and beauty, and illustrated how to communicate

positively about one’s self to others (Ahlgrim, 2022).

Background on Message-Design Logics Theory

DISSERTATION

This dissertation utilized message-design logics theory, which will be discussed in depth

in the literature review section, because it lays the groundwork for the methodology and design

of what was analyzed, including the expressive, conventional, and rhetorical logics used within

Swift’s videos and the correlations related to the works’ popularity (O’Keefe, 1988). Without the

use of theory, these different logics for the analysis of the lyrics and visualizations would not

exist because they are derived from message-design logics theory. In addition, theory must have

been utilized in the dissertation project because “different theories are different ways of thinking

about communication, and each theory looks at the process of communication from a different

angle” (Littlejohn et al., 2021, p. 6). Hence, using theory allowed the project to focus on a

specific subject matter consistently throughout the different data points examined within the

various videos.

According to O’Keefe (1988), expressive logic allows people to share their thoughts and

feelings, conventional logic enables communication to operate around the rules and norms of

society, and rhetorical logic helps produce messages that focus on goals for individuals and

groups. For example, a message with expressive logic could focus on anger or happiness, a

message with conventional logic could express societal viewpoints about teenage love, and a

message with rhetorical logic could highlight a plan to fix a friendship or relationship. O’Keefe

(1988) also argues that messages with expressive logic are often reactions to prior events,

messages with conventional logic are typically responses established by present contexts, and

messages with rhetorical logic are movements toward preferred contexts generated by the

communication process itself.

Additionally, message-design logics theory illustrates how people progress as

communicators and grow to be the most effective speakers (O’Keefe, 1988). Individuals must

DISSERTATION

master the first level focused on expressive logic, being able to vocalize their own emotions

about past situations, before moving to the next levels of the theory. After communicators

successfully use expressive logic, they then can learn about conventional logic, being able to

consider social norms within present contexts that are not necessarily only about themselves.

After people correctly utilize conventional logic, they then can learn about rhetorical logic, being

able to create their own contexts with others that lead to goal accomplishments. All in all, the

three logics are sequential for communicators and move from basic to complex.

Moreover, O’Keefe (1988) acknowledges how Delia’s views of constructivism have

influenced message-design logics theory because they focus on researchers analyzing multiple

meanings that lead them to identify dynamic views instead of meanings from a limited spectrum.

Constructivism is also relevant for message-design logics theory because it justifies how

individuals can craft their meanings or messages and reconstruct their environments as opposed

to just engaging with others or situations (Delia, 1977). Swift (n.d.) supports this concept

because the musician not only engages with others in her communication via lyrics, but she also

creates her own meanings, contexts, and environments.

Message-design logics theory was selected for this research on Swift because a

preliminary evaluation of her works illustrated that her lyrics align with the three classifications

of the theory, including emotions, social norms, and goals. Since the dissertation focuses mainly

on Swift’s music videos from a lyrical standpoint, the core aspects of the logics from the theory

were relevant to integrate because they helped differentiate Swift’s messages and rationales.

Having said that, this theory helped reveal what types of messages are the most popular by

correlating the uses of logics to Swift’s YouTube metrics for individual music videos from 2006

DISSERTATION

to 2022. Collectively, message-design logics theory was utilized in this research because it fully

helped to accomplish the project’s purpose, which will be discussed shortly.

Problem Statement

The problem is that there has been a limited and inconsistent record of scholars declaring

which logics are used the most frequently and appropriately within messages about personal

relationships compared to the majority of scholarship about professional relationships. Hullman

and Behbehani (2018) conducted a study on requests made by significant others within the

context of message-design logics theory, finding that the majority of participants’ statements

were rooted and preferred to be in the conventional logic because of societal expectations that

enable comfort to be established in personal relationships. On the other hand, Scott et al. (2013)

used the same theory to conduct a study on sharing personal matters with friends, particularly

about depression, finding that statements with rhetorical logic were viewed as the most effective

because of their focus on goals. Additionally, White and Malkowski (2014) conducted a study on

correctional conversations related to intimate behavior and drinking within college settings,

finding inconsistent preferences for the logics despite having the same contexts. Collectively,

these studies are centered on topics and goals related to personal relationships, but none of them

align to illustrate a cohesive pattern about the uses of logics like in projects about professional

relationships, such as by O’Keefe (1988), Stephens et al. (2005), and Barton and Stein (2017).

Since there have been no studies conducted on Swift’s works in the context of message-design

logics theory, this study has examined the phenomenon of Swift’s music videos and uses of

logics, which have provided more understanding for the limited and inconsistent scholarship on

this integration with the theory, especially since the musician has proven to be one of the most

popular artists in the 2000s and writes about personal relationships (Grammy Awards, n.d.).

DISSERTATION

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative study on Swift’s music videos was to comprehend content

that influences people’s real-life communication strategies and to understand which use of logic

makes works about personal relationships the most popular. This purpose was relevant because it

helped discover structures of messages that are popular and pertain to different situations within

personal relationships by an award-winning artist and music video director. Swift’s music videos

were generally defined as works that incorporate aligning lyrics and visualizations about

personal relationships rooted in different logics. The scholarship guiding this dissertation was

O’Keefe’s message-design logics theory because it focuses on how messages are designed with

expressive, conventional, and rhetorical logics.

Significance of the Study

One significance of the study was that it would provide more understanding of the limited

and inconsistent scholarship on personal relationships with message-design logics theory, which

is important because the data can help communication scholars recognize which logics make

content about personal relationships the most popular. In the majority of scholarship on message-

design logics theory, researchers have utilized hypothetical statements or have made participants

generate their own statements to assess different components related to the uses of logics.

However, this study examined the uses of logics in Swift’s lyrics, which are comparable to the

statements analyzed in previous studies, because they are written from different points of view

and reflect real-life situations that involve communication.

Another significance of the study involved the influence of Swift’s music on people’s

real-life experiences that pertain to communication. According to Ceres (2023), Swift’s fandom

“speaks a language all their own” by weaving the musician’s “lyrics into conversation” and by

DISSERTATION

understanding the contexts of the words (p. 3). In addition, Atkinson (2022) analyzed some of

Swift’s songs, including Back to December, providing examples of how people in real life could

use or apply the musician’s lyrics in their communication, particularly when dealing with

communication crises. Collectively, Swift’s song lyrics were significant to examine because they

help individuals develop “confidence and coordination” and craft verbal and non-verbal

messages to express their feelings and accomplish goals about personal relationships (Garrido &

Schubert, 2011, p. 220; Ransom, 2015). This study will appeal to communication scholars

interested in the mass dissemination of content that has been viewed billions of times and to

Zoomers and Millennials who are being influenced consciously or unconsciously by Swift’s

music in their real-life conversations.

Research Questions

The study has examined Swift’s 45 music videos to understand content that influences

people’s real-life communication strategies and to comprehend which use of logic makes content

about personal relationships the most popular.

Q1: What is the subject matter of the lyrics and visualizations in Taylor Swift’s music

videos on YouTube?

1.1: What general topic is the most prominent in Swift’s music videos?

1.2: What specific theme is the most prominent in Swift’s music videos?

1.3: What words are used the most frequently in Swift’s music videos?

Q2: How are the three facets of message-design logics theory used within Taylor Swift’s

music videos on YouTube?

2.1: What logic is used the most frequently within Swift’s music videos?

2.2: What logic is used the least within Swift’s music videos?

DISSERTATION

2.3: What logic is used in Swift’s 10 most-liked music videos?

Q3: How do the topics about personal relationships align with the three different types of

logics within Taylor Swift’s music videos on YouTube?

3.1: What logic is most frequently used in Swift’s videos about happy romantic

relationships?

3.2: What logic is most frequently used in Swift’s videos about sad romantic

relationships?

3.3: What logic is most frequently used in Swift’s videos about revenge?

Definitions

Below are the definitions for words and abbreviations pertinent to the study:

1. YouTube—A popular Web 2.0 platform that has over one billion videos and that enables

anyone to upload videos to be watched, liked, disliked, commented on, and shared

(Courtois et al., 2013).

2. Music Video—A work of art that is typically uploaded to YouTube or Vimeo and that

blends lyrics and visualizations to complete or strengthen the storytelling of a song

(Jackson, 2022).

3. Lyrics—The words of a song or poem that are separated into stanzas to convey direct and

implied meaning (Beasley & Chuang, 2006).

4. Visualizations—Pictures, images, or videos that are generated to better understand works,

including music pieces (Lima et al., 2022).

5. Expressive Logic—Has the view that “language is a medium for expressing thoughts and

feelings” (O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

DISSERTATION

6. Conventional Logic—Has the view that “communication is a game played cooperatively

by social rules” (O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

7. Rhetorical Logic—Has the view that “communication is the creation and negotiation of

social selves and situations” (O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

Summary

The purpose of this qualitative study on Swift’s music videos was to comprehend content

that influences people’s real-life communication strategies and to understand which use of logic

makes works about personal relationships the most popular. This purpose was relevant because it

helped discover structures of messages that are popular and pertain to different situations within

personal relationships by an award-winning artist and director. The problem is that there has

been a limited and inconsistent record of scholars declaring which logics are used the most

frequently and appropriately within messages about personal relationships compared to the

majority of scholarship about professional relationships. While Swift’s works do not have issues

in the context of message-design logics theory, this study examined the phenomenon of Swift’s

music videos and uses of logics, which have provided more understanding of the limited and

inconsistent scholarship on this integration with the theory, especially since the musician has

proven to be one of the most popular artists in the 21st century who writes about personal

relationships. Chapter One included information regarding the overview, scholarly area of

communication, background on Swift and message-design logics theory, problem statement,

purpose statement, significance of the study, research questions, definition of terms, and

summary.

DISSERTATION

Chapter Two: Literature Review

Chapter Overview

This chapter will review the relevant literature associated with message-design logics

theory and music videos on YouTube. First, this section will review how the study is situated in

some of Craig’s seven traditions and O’Keefe’s message-design logics theory. Second, this

chapter will examine literature about message-design logics, focusing on the main concepts,

historical elements, current uses, and central problems. The chosen articles about this theory will

have studied various topics in connection to the three logics and will be from the theory’s

origination year to the present day. Third, this section will analyze literature about music videos

on YouTube, focusing on messaging and audience members. The chosen articles will only

pertain to academic studies and be from 2005 to 2022 because this range encompasses the

duration of YouTube’s existence. Collectively, this chapter will further readers’ knowledge

about message-design logics theory and music videos solely through research projects.

Situation to Communication Tradition and Existing Scholarship on Swift

This section will discuss how some of Craig’s seven traditions are connected to this

dissertation project on Swift’s music videos and O’Keefe’s message-design logics theory. First,

one will learn about the differences between theories and traditions. Second, the rhetorical

tradition, phenomenological tradition, semiotic tradition, sociopsychological tradition, and

sociocultural tradition will be explained in general, including how they connect to this specific

project. Third, existing scholarship on Swift will be examined to connect seminal research to the

current research of the dissertation.

Craig’s Seven Traditions

DISSERTATION

In this section, one will examine the differences between a theory and a tradition. Craig

(1999) explains that communication theories are consequential and significant because they

connect with the seven traditions, including “semiotic,” “cybernetic,” “phenomenological,”

“rhetorical,” “critical,” “sociocultural,” and “sociopsychological” (p. 133). Likewise, the scholar

argues that the seven traditions are crucial for communication scholars to understand because

they aid one’s expansive understanding of theories and their significance. One difference

between a theory and tradition pertains to the quantity associated with each. For instance, there

are thousands of communication theories that help explain behavior, whereas there are only

seven traditions that help justify how communication is theorized and how collaborative social

acts take place (Craig, 1999).

Another difference between a theory and tradition involves the structures of each. For

example, the traditions offer unique tasks and descriptions for communication, allowing theories

to be categorized into them. On the other hand, traditions would not be categorized into theories

because they are a part of a higher classification. A third difference between a theory and

tradition involves the ability and inability to integrate change. Folbre (2023) explains how

feminist theory has shifted throughout time depending on the historical contexts of particular

eras. Hence, theories are flexible and can be modified throughout time when new studies are

conducted that invalidate past ways of thinking. Unlike theories, traditions would have a more

difficult time evolving because they are categories that illustrate how communication is theorized

(Craig, 1999).

This dissertation is situated in several of Craig’s seven traditions for various reasons.

Craig (1999) explains that the rhetorical tradition views communication as “the practical art of

discourse,” is focused on words and arguments, and requires people to consider goals carefully

DISSERTATION

(p. 133). The tradition’s elements have been significant for centuries because they allow

individuals to engage in productive conversations and persuade others within different contexts.

By meticulously choosing, organizing, and reciting relevant words, people can generate

messages to impact beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes. In addition, this tradition has many anchors,

including invention to establish meaning from symbols, arrangement to organize different

symbols, style to present words, delivery to disseminate messaging, and memory to retain

information (Craig, 1999). These anchors are critical for communication researchers because

they justify why certain messages are adequate and inadequate in a persuasive context.

The rhetorical tradition also can assist musicians with creating and delivering content to

audiences that is meant to persuade people’s opinions or feelings. Having said that, this tradition

has situated the dissertation on Swift because it has centered on the rhetorical shifts, persuasive

techniques, and message logics throughout the 45 videos. Hence, the five anchors mentioned

previously have been considered in the project to characterize the uses of rhetoric and discourse

throughout the progression of Swift’s work. Considering past analyses, the rhetorical tradition

has adequately situated contemporary topics related to entertainment and media, such as in a

project on Tyler Perry’s portrayal of Madea and the actor’s rhetorical choices, which has

supported its use in this study’s investigation (Whitfield & Johnson, 2019).

Additionally, the phenomenological tradition argues that communication is theorized as

the “experience of otherness,” that signs, symbols, and dialogue could be interpreted dissimilarly

by people in various cultures, and that relational bonds can be improved by embracing and

acknowledging the unique elements and experiences of others (Craig, 1999, p. 133). This

tradition is becoming more relevant because of the growing diversity within societies and

because of its ability to bring people together in the divided world. For example, this tradition

DISSERTATION

could help elected politicians understand their differences and not view members from the

opposing political party through the lens of otherness, especially since the members have

different races, ideologies, genders, and religious beliefs. Likewise, this tradition could help

people from different countries, such as Canada and Ukraine, understand their differences within

contemporary and cultural contexts. This tradition aligns with message-design logics theory

because the scholarship focuses on contextualization, appropriateness, and dynamic

interpretations of behaviors. It also aligns because the research addresses different contexts that

often involve dissimilar people and how respect can be formed through appropriate exchanges of

dialogue.

According to Maguire (2006), the semiotic tradition argues that “communication is

theorized as intersubjective mediation by signs and symbols” and that individuals create realities

and meanings via language usages (p. 89). This tradition is significant for communication

scholars because language created via action, image, or word is how people communicate and

understand one another. Message-design logics theory connects with the semiotic tradition

because using conventional and rhetorical logics requires intersubjectivity. From the distinct

symbols and signs from Swift’s music videos, people can develop understood and shared

meanings.

Moreover, according to Craig (1999), the sociopsychological tradition argues that

communication is theorized as “expression, interaction, and influence,” that people engage in

manners based on their biases, feelings, and personalities, that relationships can be analyzed

through observations, and that manipulation is sometimes necessary to accomplish goals (p.

133). This tradition is relevant for communication researchers, especially for digital applications,

because observations typically take place in digital spaces that reveal how others engage as a

DISSERTATION

result of their own social beliefs and identities. This tradition connects with message-design

logics theory because the different logics enable people to observe behaviors, justify

occurrences, and accomplish goals.

Furthermore, Craig (1999) explains that the sociocultural tradition affirms that

communication is theorized as “reproduction of social order,” that issues can occur if a lack of

communication coordination exists, that societies have personal cultures, and that individuals are

unconsciously or consciously influenced by their societies. This tradition is significant for

communication scholars because it explains how individuals are influenced by the components

of their respective societies. This tradition connects with message-design logics theory and Swift

because the musician’s works are a part of the mainstream culture and contribute to

communicative expectations for a broad-based, international audience.

Existing Communication Scholarship on Swift

There is a plethora of seminal research on Swift, ranging from various topics that connect

to communication in some capacity. Driessen (2022) completed a study on Swift’s endorsement

of political candidates in 2018, finding that a significant majority of Instagram commenters

argued that it was strategic and appropriate for the singer because public figures are expected to

discuss their political leanings. This research connects to the current dissertation because some of

the analyzed songs are political in nature, which impacts the uses of logics. Likewise, Nisbett

and Schartel (2021) researched individuals’ reactions to Swift’s political engagements, finding

that narrative involvement alters perceptions and behaviors. This research aligns with the current

dissertation because narrative involvement is associated with the most-liked works by Swift on

YouTube. Considering feminism in conjunction with politics, Isaksen and Eltantawy (2021)

conducted a study on people’s perceptions on Swift in 2015 and found that people approved and

DISSERTATION

disapproved the artist’s feminism stances via Tweets. Similarly, Pignetti (2020) completed a

study on Tumblr about Swift and found that people misinterpreted the musician’s work about a

past relationship. These studies illustrates the importance of the dissertation’s focus on

examining the topics and themes of Swift’s works academically. In addition, Prins (2020)

completed an analysis on digital content by extremists about Swift, finding that the internet

enables individuals to disseminate falsehoods and defamatory statements on the musician’s

brand. This research highlights the challenges facing people, such as Swift and other public

figures, to disseminate their communication and truths to mass groups when fringe extremist

groups convent the artists’ messaging into harmful misinformation.

To compare celebrities with differing political views, Krebs (2022) completed research

on Kanye West and Swift and found that artists use different strategies in their creative works to

influence the political landscape. Similar to the previous researcher, Cullen (2016) conducted a

study on West and Swift, arguing that the conflicts at the MTV Video Music Awards in 2009 led

to the beginning of the indirect political associations for the celebrities. Centering on evolution,

Sloan (2021) examined Swift’s acceptance speech at the 2016 Grammys and found that the

musician has evolved lyrically since 2006 but has maintained a coherent musical identity. This

research connects to the current dissertation because the analyzed music falls within different

genres and because Swift’s communication styles have shifted throughout time. Likewise,

Fogarty and Arnold (2021) conducted a study on Swift’s career, providing evidence through

surveys that justifies how the singer’s fans have remained loyal throughout the different musical

eras. Similar to the previous scholars, Franssen (2022) investigated Swift’s evolutions over the

last two decades, arguing that the singer is crucial to study to comprehend celebrity politics. In

addition, Dubrofsky (2016) completed an analysis on Swift’s “Shake It Off,” highlighting the

DISSERTATION

singer’s transition to explore topics, such as race, feminism, and otherness. This project aligns

with the current research because “Shake It Off” has been analyzed extensively in this

dissertation. Speaking of social issues, Arriaza (2019) conducted an analysis on social networks,

finding that Swift’s vocalization about the #MeToo Movement has shifted perspectives. Also,

Canavan and McCamley (2020) conducted a literary analysis on Swift’s evolutions and found

that reputation, romance, and revenge are significant themes that have enabled the singer to

transition. This study connects with the current research because it has focused on themes of

communication that have allowed Swift to shift her communication techniques.

Theoretical and Biblical Framework

Message-design logics theory has been crucial for the dissertation’s theoretical

framework for various reasons. First, this theory has been integrated with a relatively low

number of studies, as is evident because of searches on EBSCOhost and JSTOR. Second, this

theory has been utilized because it categorized the three logics that help people compose

messages. According to O’Keefe (1988), expressive logic allows people to share their thoughts

and feelings, conventional logic enables communication to operate around the rules and norms of

society, and rhetorical logic helps produce messages that focus on goals for individuals and

groups. Since the study focuses on Swift’s music videos from a visual and lyrical standpoint, this

aspect of the theory was relevant to integrate because it helped differentiate Swift’s messages

and rationales. Having said that, this theory helped reveal what types of messages are the most

popular by correlating the uses of logics to Swift’s YouTube metrics for the individual music

videos from 2006 to 2022.

The theory was also utilized in the project because of its successful integration into other

contemporary projects. For example, Edwards et al. (2020) completed a study on how robotic

DISSERTATION

messages are viewed by humans, using message-design logics theory as a frame for the project.

The scholars concluded that messages with rhetorical logic were perceived to be the most

effective, especially because of “predicted communication success, goal-relevant attributes,

competence, credibility, and attractiveness” (p. 945). Similarly, Hullman and Behbehani (2018)

completed a study on requests within romantic relationships, using message-design logics theory

as a frame for the project. The researchers found that messages with conventional logic were

used the most frequently and effectively. The findings from these studies are consequential for

the communication discipline because they conclude different results about the popularity and

effectiveness of the logics within different contexts. Therefore, message-design logics theory has

been utilized in connection with the project because there are no studies that have integrated

Swift’s music videos with the theory, per searches on EBSCOhost and JSTOR.

Moreover, Littlejohn et al. (2017) explain that “social construction investigates how

human knowledge is constructed through social interaction” by involving “language” and “social

reality” (p. 117). This subject matter is significant because it highlights how meaning is

established and how individuals are influenced by others in their own communication. Likewise,

the scholars explain that “constructivism” highlights how individuals “interpret and act

according to” their minds’ conceptual categories or knowledge structures (p. 119). This theory

has influenced message-design logics theory and has established how individuals develop their

own meanings of content.

Furthermore, concepts from Mark 4:33-34 and Ephesians 5:19, which highlight music

and storytelling, align with this research (New King James Version Bible, 1982). Mark 4:33-34

proclaims, “And with many such parables He spoke the word to them as they were able to hear

it. But without a parable He did not speak to them. And when they were alone, He explained all

DISSERTATION

things to his disciples” (New King James Version Bible, 1982). Hence, Jesus frequently

communicated through stories with morals because they critically helped disseminate Biblical

principles and values. Also, Ephesians 5:19 proclaims, “Speaking to one another in psalms and

hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making melody in your heart to the Lord” (New King

James Version Bible, 1982). Thus, music and lyrics are significant to life because they help

individuals know the Lord and communicate effectively.

Related Literature on Message-Design Logics Theory

This section will focus on literature related to message-design logics theory, centering on

studies that address different subject matters. First, this part will examine early studies conducted

by the theory’s founder to gain a contextual understanding of the scholarship and by others about

storytelling and memories. Second, this section will review studies within the discipline of health

communication, focusing on works about patients’ preferences with logics, disclosing health

issues with family or friends, nurses, and miscellaneous topics. Third, this portion will analyze

studies about personal relationships, focusing on requests in romantic relationships and drinking

interventions. Next, this part will examine studies about business contexts, focusing on

organizational change, insufficient work partners, and work leaders. Last, this section will review

studies on politics and digital tools, focusing on climate change, social robots, social capital,

prosocial behavior, and social media.

Early Studies by O’Keefe and Others

This subsection will focus on scholarship from the founder of message-design logics

theory and other scholars who researched the topic in the 20th century. First, O’Keefe’s original

study from 1988 and a joint project with Lambert from 1989 will be analyzed to provide context

for the scholarship. Second, early studies about storytelling and memories will be examined

DISSERTATION

because they confirm and counter the original ideas from O’Keefe about expressive,

conventional, and rhetorical logics.

Studies on the Founding of Message-Design Logics Theory

O’Keefe is a communication scholar known for her work on message-design logics

theory, for her contribution to scholarship on rhetoric and argumentation, for her professorial

duties, and for her miscellaneous published articles and books. O’Keefe (1988) created message-

design logics theory to focus on “the systematic individual differences in the premises used to

generate messages through ends to means reasoning,” on “principles of coherence,” and on “goal

integration” (p. 80). According to O’Keefe (1988), expressive logic allows people to share their

thoughts and feelings, conventional logic enables communication to operate around the rules and

norms of society, and rhetorical logic helps produce messages that focus on goals for individuals

and groups. For example, a message with expressive logic could focus on bitterness or sadness, a

message with conventional logic could express societal viewpoints about marriage, and a

message with rhetorical logic could highlight a plan to repair a broken friendship or relationship.

O’Keefe (1988) also argues that messages with expressive logic are often reactions to prior

events, messages with conventional logic are typically responses established by present contexts,

and messages with rhetorical logic are movements toward preferred contexts generated by the

communication process itself.

O’Keefe (1988) acknowledges how Delia’s views of constructivism have influenced

message-design logics theory because they focus on researchers analyzing multiple meanings

that lead them to identify dynamic views instead of meanings from a limited spectrum.

Constructivism is also relevant for message-design logics theory because it justifies how

individuals can craft their meanings or messages and reconstruct their environments as opposed

DISSERTATION

to just engaging with others or situations (Delia, 1977). The creator conducted a qualitative study

on communication students, using message-design logics theory as the foundation for the project

to determine which logics were used the most frequently and effectively by a specific group of

individuals.

In the study, O’Keefe (1988) collected data from almost 100 participants in introductory

communication courses, gathering written statements on how students described peers they liked

and disliked and how students would craft a hypothetical message toward someone who has

contributed little to a group project. The researcher found that women utilized rhetorical logic

more than men and that people who utilized expressive and conventional logics were low in

construct differentiation compared to those who used rhetorical logic. This study was significant

because it launched the interest of studying messages with expressive, conventional, and

rhetorical logics to determine the strengths and weaknesses of strategies in professional

communication contexts that could alter the outcomes of messaging, conversations, and

dissemination.

In Figure 2, readers can examine different aspects of the logics that O’Keefe used as

evaluative criteria for the 1988 study. O’Keefe (1988) argues that the primary purpose of

expressive logic is to ensure that one’s honest feelings are vocalized about a past occurrence,

without considering much context or requiring intersubjective minds to engage in conversations.

In other words, expressive logic is the least sophisticated and requires the least amount of

planning or engagement. Additionally, expressive logic does not require considerations of social

rules, present contexts, intersubjective thinking, negotiations, or goals.

Likewise, O’Keefe (1988) explains that the primary purpose of conventional logic is to

create conversation about present contexts in alignment with social expectations in particular

DISSERTATION

cultures, requiring intersubjective minds to engage in conversations. In other words,

conventional logic is more sophisticated than expressive logic and requires foundational

knowledge of societies to be utilized correctly. Moreover, conventional logic does not primarily

focus on personal feelings, prior events, or desired contexts.

Along with expressive logic and conventional logic, O’Keefe (1988) argues that the

primary purpose of rhetorical logic is to create context to push toward accomplishing a goal via

communication, requiring intersubjective minds to engage in dialogue with one another. In other

words, rhetorical logic is the most sophisticated logic and requires exceptional communication

skills for creation of contexts and persuasion of minds. Also, rhetorical logic does not focus on

personal feelings, social rules, or immediate present contexts. Ultimately, the main goal of a

communicator is to develop the skills necessary to progress from expressive logic to

conventional logic to rhetorical logic because the different levels are required in different

communication situations (see Figure 2). Considering the evaluative criteria, message-design

logics theory was the best scholarship to examine Swift’s communication practices because the

artist focuses on personal feelings, social norms, and goals in many of her works (n.d.).

DISSERTATION

Figure 2

O’Keefe’s Evaluative Criteria for Message-Design Logics Theory

“Language is a medium for

expressing thoughts and

feelings” (O’Keefe, 1988, p.

85).

“Clarity of expression;

openness and honesty;

unimpeded signaling”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

“Reaction to prior event”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

“Little attention to context”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

“Subjective and associative”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

“Communication is a game

played cooperatively by

social rules” (O’Keefe, 1988,

p. 85).

“Appropriateness; control of

resources; cooperativeness”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

“Response specified by

present context” (O’Keefe,

1988, p. 85).

Expressive Logic

Conventional Logic

DISSERTATION

“Action and meaning context-

determined” (O’Keefe, 1988,

p. 85).

“Intersubjective and rule-

focused” (O’Keefe, 1988, p.

85).

“Communication is the

creation and negotiation of

social selves and situations”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85)

“Flexibility, symbolic

sophistication; depth of

interpretation” (O’Keefe,

1988, p. 85).

“Initiate movement toward

desired context” (O’Keefe,

1988, p. 85).

“Communication process

creates context” (O’Keefe,

1988, p. 85).

“Intersubjective and style-

centered” (O’Keefe, 1988, p.

85).

Collectively, message-design logics theory was monumental because it established three

different ways of viewing how people communicate (O’Keefe, 1988). The different logics to the

theory represent different mindsets of how individuals develop and recite messages about

different topics and contexts. With message-design logics theory, scholars can comprehend why

individuals communicate the way they do, and individuals in real-life situations can adjust their

own communication methods upon recognizing the techniques that someone else is using in

Rhetorical Logic

DISSERTATION

conversations. Having said that, O’Keefe (1988) illustrates through this theory how people can

acquire empathy, enhance their personal and professional relationships, reduce

misunderstanding, adjust messaging to resonate with various audiences, and implement effective

communication.

Additionally, O’Keefe and Lambert (1989) conducted a qualitative study on messages by

producers and receivers, using message-design logics theory to investigate why people construct

different statements in different contexts. The scholars collected data from over 500 participants,

finding that people utilize different logics based on their systematically unique beliefs about

communication situations and that individuals’ communication intentions are illustrated through

the attribution of messages to producers by respondents. This study was significant because it

established the framework that individuals generate messages differently with expressive,

conventional, and rhetorical logics based on their current situations and viewpoints related to

communication. Comparing the two studies from 1988 and 1989, rhetorical logic has been

argued to be the most sophisticated and effective for communicators in professional settings

because it considers the goals of people who send and receive messages. However, there are

studies on O’Keefe’s message-design logics theory that highlight some controversy with the

scholarship, such as by Hample and Dallinger (1991), Herold et al. (1996), Stephens et al.

(2005), Ocaña and Busling (2018), and Hullman and Behbehani (2018), which will be discussed

in their respective sections about their individual focuses.

Studies about Logics with Storytelling and Memories.

Hample and Dallinger (1991) conducted a mixed methods study on messaging about

liked and disliked people, using message-design logics theory as a foundation for the project to

validate or invalidate O’Keefe’s findings. The researchers collected quantitative data through

DISSERTATION

surveys and qualitative data through messaging responses from almost 200 participants, finding

that expressive, conventional, and rhetorical logics were utilized relatively evenly. This study

was significant because it was one of the first projects to publish different findings from

O’Keefe, making it necessary for other scholars to integrate topics with message-design logics

theory to validate or invalidate the argument that rhetorical logic is the most sophisticated and

effective strategy to consider. Similarly, Herold et al. (1996) conducted a mixed methods study

on mood and message construction about positive and negative memories, using message-design

logics theory as the foundation for the project to identify any correlations. The scholars collected

qualitative data from almost 50 participants through open-ended storytelling responses and

quantitative data through surveys about the participants’ current moods. The study concluded

that people in positive moods utilized expressive and conventional logics more, whereas people

in negative moods utilized rhetorical logic more. This study was significant because it

established how people’s states of mind could alter from day to day, enabling them to utilize

expressive, conventional, and rhetorical logics based on internal motivations as opposed to

external motivations. The results from the 1991 and 1996 studies illustrate that people utilize

different logics for different reasons, and that rhetorical logic is not always the most effective as

originally argued in the 1988 and 1989 studies.

Studies Related to Health

This section will focus on scholarship that connected health-related topics with message-

design logics theory. First, studies about patients’ preferences with logics will be examined to

illustrate frequent and favorable strategies from doctors. Second, studies about disclosing health

issues with friends or family members will be analyzed to provide personal perspectives. Third,

studies about nurses in different contexts will be reviewed to identify the effectiveness of logics.

DISSERTATION

Last, miscellaneous topics that have not been examined extensively with message-design logics

theory will be considered.

Studies about Patients’ Preferences with Logics

Various studies have investigated patients’ preferences of logics in messages from

medical doctors. Lambert and Gillespie (1994) conducted a mixed methods study on how

patients would perceive messages about hypertension from pharmacy students, using message-

design logics theory as the foundation for the project to determine which logics were used the

most frequently and perceived favorably. The scholars collected qualitative data from almost 100

pharmacy students through open-ended answers and quantitative data from almost 100 patients

through surveys conducted in interviews. The researchers found that expressive logic was used

the least, that conventional logic was used the most, and that rhetorical logic was the preferred

approach by patients because it helped produce messages that showed empathy, discussed

treatment plans, and encouraged open dialogue with physicians. Similarly, Barton and Stein

(2017) conducted a qualitative study on how patients perceive messages about diabetes from

pharmacy students, using message-design logics theory as the project’s guide to determine which

logics were perceived favorably. The scholars collected qualitative data from patients through

semi-structured interviews about different messages with expressive, conventional, and

rhetorical logics, finding that rhetorical messages are most preferred because patients feel that

their humanity, worth, and health are considered and valued. This study was significant because

it argued not only why patients objectively prefer messages with rhetorical logic but also how

this strategy made them feel in a vulnerable medical setting. Comparing the two studies from

1994 and 2017, a majority of patients prefer messages with rhetorical logic because they help

DISSERTATION

them understand the objectives that must be taken to correct health problems or accomplish

goals.

Studies about Disclosing Health Issues with Friends or Family

Several studies have investigated the logics utilized in messages about health disclosures

with friends or family members. Scott et al. (2013) conducted a mixed methods study on

messaging about depression disclosure with friends, using message-design logics theory as the

foundation for the project to determine if expressive, conventional, or rhetorical logics were used

and favored most frequently. The researchers collected qualitative data from over 500

participants to identify how they would approach a friend about depression and quantitative data

from over 300 participants who suffer from depression to identify which messages were

perceived favorably. The scholars found that over 70% of the generated messages utilized

conventional logic in the study’s first part and that rhetorical logic was preferred the most in

messages in the study’s second part. This study was significant because it illustrated that a

majority of messages in a personal context with loved ones are constructed with a type of logic

that depressed individuals do not prefer or favor. Likewise, Caughlin et al. (2008) conducted a

study on messaging responses to siblings who disclose their status with HIV, using message-

design logics theory to determine the uses of logics and which messaging is viewed the most

favorably by people with HIV. The scholars collected qualitative data from over 500 participants

to identify the logics utilized, finding that people used conventional logic the most and rhetorical

logic the least. Also, the researchers collected quantitative data from over 400 participants with

HIV, finding that rhetorical logic messages were preferred the most and expressive logic

messages were preferred the least. Comparing the two studies from 2008 and 2013, a majority of

people in the established contexts prefer when their friends or family members respond with

DISSERTATION

rhetorical logic messages because they are focused on goals; however, a majority of these

individuals are receiving messages with logics they do not prefer.

Studies about Nurses and Logics

There are a few studies that have investigated the uses of logics in contexts related to

nurses. Peterson and Albrecht (1996) conducted a quantitative study on nurse managers and staff

nurses, using message-design logics theory as the project’s foundation to determine if the logics

created different levels of trust between people in different positions. The scholars collected data

from almost 100 participants at a hospital, acquiring quantitative data through surveys from staff

nurses and nurse managers to correlate the relationships. The researchers concluded that nurse

managers who utilize rhetorical logic with staff nurses who do not use rhetorical logic receive

the best results from their employees. This study was significant because it established that

employees in work environments prefer to utilize different logics in messages from their leaders,

managers, or bosses because it helps create a structured hierarchy of expectations.

Unlike the previous analysis, Strekalova et al. (2017) conducted a qualitative study on

how nurses generate empathy to patients, using message-design logics theory to identify their

strategies. The researchers collected data from over 300 nurses, finding that rhetorical logic helps

produce high-quality responses about personal health records. This study was significant because

it argued for the most effective strategy that nurses could utilize to help their present and future

patients in conversations about their health. Comparing the two studies from 1996 and 2017, they

focus on different subject matter about nurses but conclude the same effectiveness of rhetorical

logic.

Miscellaneous Studies on Health and Logics

DISSERTATION

There are various studies on unique topics that have not been examined extensively with

message-design logics theory. Xu et al. (2021) conducted a quantitative study on the impact of

messaging for people who hesitate to vaccinate their children, using message-design logics

theory to determine if different approaches shift individuals’ perceptions with health-related

topics. The scholars collected data from over 800 participants, acquiring quantitative data to

determine people’s pre-existing beliefs and to highlight any shifts in positions about vaccines

after being presented with new information. The researchers concluded that none of the messages

with expressive, conventional, or rhetorical logics significantly shifted the beliefs of hesitant

parents about vaccinations. This study was consequential because it illustrated that using

messages with different logics is insignificant if the people receiving the messaging have already

established a viewpoint that they are unwilling to change, especially after one or two

conversations, even if it is harmful for themselves and others. Also, Edwards et al. (2008)

conducted a quantitative study on loneliness and social well-being, using message-design logics

theory as the foundation for the project to identify any correlations. The scholars collected

quantitative data from over 100 participants through surveys to correlate their social support with

the message logics. The researchers found that messages with expressive logic were associated

with poor support from friends and that messages with rhetorical logic were associated with

exceptional support from friends. This study was significant because it illustrated how people

feel safe and supported by individuals who use messages with rhetorical logic because of the

higher effort normally associated with them, compared to messages with expressive or

conventional logic because of the minimal effort typically associated with them. The studies

from 2008 and 2021 are different but help illustrate crucial findings, including that certain

DISSERTATION

populations cannot be persuaded regardless of logics and that messages with expressive logic can

make individuals believe they lack social support from their friends and family members.

Studies Related to Personal Conversations

Various studies have investigated how logics are utilized in messaging about personal

matters. Hullman (2004) conducted a quantitative study on the effectiveness of messaging in

personal conversations, using message-design logics theory as the foundation for the project to

determine if expressive, conventional, or rhetorical logics were the most favored. The researcher

collected data from over 100 participants, acquiring quantitative data from surveys about

conversations they had in pairs of two and about messages from a hypothetical conversation. The

scholar concluded that messages with conventional logic were viewed as more effective most

frequently. This study was significant because it was one of the first studies to apply message-

design logics theory to a non-professional context and because it contributed to the list of

projects that published opposing findings that were inconsistent with O’Keefe’s original study.

Re-focusing on the previous work, Hullman and Behbehani (2018) conducted a mixed methods

study on request messages in romantic relationships, using message-design logics theory as the

foundation for the project to determine if expressive, conventional, or rhetorical logics were

utilized the most within conversations. The scholars collected data from over 100 participants,

acquiring quantitative and qualitative answers from hypothetical situations, and found that

conventional logic was utilized most frequently in first and second requests made by romantic

partners. This study was significant because it used the same theory and genre as the 2004 study

but centralized the focus to be on individuals in romantic relationships as opposed to loosely

investigating personal relationships. Comparing Hullman’s studies from 2004 and 2018,

DISSERTATION

conventional logic within personal messages has been perceived to be the most effective because

of the established context by the individuals in conversations.

Moreover, White et al. (2014) conducted a mixed methods study on intervening with

drinking experiences with college friends, using message-design logics theory as the foundation

for the project to determine if expressive, conventional, or rhetorical logics were the most

effective strategy in this context. The researchers collected qualitative and quantitative data from

over 200 participants to identify how they would approach a friend about a drinking situation,

collecting numerical and open-ended answers about message responses. The scholars found that

having more specific goals led to “messages better aligned with achieving those goals” and that

“more sophisticated design logic was related to a higher sense of efficacy” (p. 93). This study

was significant because it connected the theory to a situation that many people must deal with

throughout time, not only during college years but also over the entire course of one’s life, as a

result of addiction and abuse. Unlike the previous studies, this 2014 study aligns with the

original findings from O’Keefe because it explored the sophistication and effectiveness of

rhetorical logic.

Studies Related to Business and School

Many studies have investigated how logics are utilized in messages about business

activities. Barbour et al. (2013) conducted a mixed methods study on organizational change,

using message-design logics theory as the foundation for the project to determine if expressive,

conventional, or rhetorical logics were utilized the most within response messages to alterations.

The researchers collected data from over 1000 college participants in communication courses,

acquiring quantitative and qualitative data about hypothetical situations, and found that over 65%

of responses about organizational change used conventional logic. This study was significant

DISSERTATION

because it illustrated effects on message sophistication and that not everyone in professional

settings prefers to utilize rhetorical logics, even though it is perceived to be the most effective by

an array of scholars. Further, Stephens et al. (2005) conducted a study on messaging about

organizational crises and stakeholders, loosely using message-design logics theory to identify the

content of over 150 messages about 10 different kinds of problems. The researchers found that

“different crisis-message strategies are used to communicate to different stakeholders” and that

organizations rarely “state the technical facts with little or no explanation provided to

stakeholders” (p. 390). These studies do not correlate with O’Keefe’s original findings because

they illustrate the flexibility of logics within professional messaging that must consider different

contexts and values.

Unlike the previous work, Cortes et al. (2005) conducted a mixed methods study on

messaging about a friend slacking off with schoolwork, using message-design logics theory to

determine if gender or cultural background influences dialogue in conversations. The scholars

collected quantitative data about demographics and qualitative data about message responses

from almost 200 participants, having an almost even amount of Mexican and American students

of different genders. The researchers found that Mexican participants used rhetorical logic more

than American participants, proving that culture impacts interpersonal construct differentiation

and the use of logics, and that there was not a significant correlation between message-design

logics and gender. This project was significant because it was one of the first projects to consider

how someone’s culture could impact their preferences and uses of logics in messaging. Aligning

partially with the previous studies, Ocaña and Busling (2018) conducted a quantitative study on

messages by group leaders, using message-design logics theory to determine how employees

respond. The researchers collected data from over 200 participants through surveys after they

DISSERTATION

reviewed different statements by group leaders. The scholars concluded that expressive messages

“elicit sufficient perceptions of threat or seriousness to induce compliance,” that rhetorical

messages “offer enough face-saving and understanding to elicit a reciprocal response,” and that

conventional messages do not “elicit sufficient urgency or threat to motivate behavioral change”

(p. 52). This study is one of the only projects to conclude that messages with expressive logic

can be as effective as messages with rhetorical logic in business settings.

Studies Related to Politics and Digital Tools

Various studies have connected message-design logics theory to politics and digital tools.

The first two studies focus on political messaging, centering on climate change communication

and other topics. The third and fourth studies focus on social capital, prosocial behavior, and

digital platforms. The final study in this section focuses on humans and their perceptions of

messaging from social robots.

Political Messaging with Logics

Merzdorf et al. (2019) conducted a study on climate change communication, using

message-design logics theory as the foundation for the project to identify what strategies

influence the uses of logics in messaging. The scholars completed their analysis, finding that

demographics and beliefs of misinformation are important facets to consider before engaging in

conversations meant to persuade others about climate change issues. The researchers concluded

that “evidence-based strategies are critical in giving science communicators the tools they need

to bridge the gap between the scientific community and the at-risk public” (p. 1). This study was

significant because it illustrated why individuals must have the necessary subject knowledge on

polarizing topics to ensure that appropriate logics are utilized in persuading messages. Likewise,

Kampf and David (2019) conducted an analysis-based study on political messages meant to

DISSERTATION

change people’s beliefs, loosely using message-design logics theory to identify how people shift

their viewpoints on peace. The scholars examined different literature to correlate patterns of

behaviors that employ different logic strategies. The researchers found that hawkish people are

driven farther away from a peace compromise when they receive conciliatory messages, which is

why peace discourse scholars should be cautious. Comparing the studies from 2019, readers can

recognize the importance of not falsely expecting a result to occur based on previous occurrences

with logics.

The Influence of Logics on Social Capital, Prosocial Behavior, and Digital Platforms

Like the previous project about community, Edwards and Shepherd (2007) conducted a

mixed methods study on individuals’ social capital and prosocial behavior, using message-design

logics theory to identify any correlations between people’s behaviors and statements. The

researchers collected data from over 100 participants through a survey with qualitative and

quantitative questions, finding that people who use rhetorical logic had higher levels of social

capital and prosocial behavior compared to those who use expressive and conventional logics.

This study was significant because it illustrated that people who are focused on helping others or

engaging with communities most frequently utilize rhetorical logic because of a focus on goals

and trust. Using a similar facet of the previous project, Oh and LaRose (2016) conducted a

quantitative study on individuals who seek support on digital networks, using message-design

logics theory to determine how time, effort, publicity, and logics influence messaging. The

researchers collected data from almost 200 participants to correlate the main facets of the project,

finding that “the more effort people put into message composition, the more likely they are to

produce a sophisticated support-seeking message that serves an additional goal of impression

management” (p. 38). This study was significant because it concluded that messages with

DISSERTATION

rhetorical logic often take more time and effort to craft compared to expressive and conventional

messages.

Social Robots and Logics

Unlike the previous works on messaging by humans, Edwards et al. (2020) conducted a

mixed methods study on humans and their perceptions of messaging from social robots, using

message-design logics theory as the foundation for the project to determine if expressive,

conventional, or rhetorical logics were viewed as the most effective. The scholars collected data

virtually from over 500 participants, acquiring quantitative and qualitative data about the robots’

messages. They found that “rhetorical message designs led to the most positive impressions of

the robot in terms of predicted communication success, goal-relevant attributes, competence,

credibility, and attractiveness” (p. 945). The researchers concluded that participants had a better

understanding of messages that utilized more sophisticated designs compared to those that used

less sophisticated designs. While the studies from 2019 did not validate O’Keefe’s findings, this

study on social robots has validated them because of its arguments on sophisticated designs and

rhetorical logic for messages. In the next section, readers can examine a holistic overview of

studies on message-design logics theory (see Figure 3).

Synthesis of the Factors of Message-Design Logics Theory

While the factors of message-design logics theory have been synthesized individually

throughout the different categories, this section will synthesize the components into one

discussion from the early studies, the studies related to heath, the studies related to personal

conversations, the studies related to business and school, and the studies related to politics and

digital tools (see Figure 3 & Figure 4).

Factors about the Most Effective Logics

DISSERTATION

Considering the dozens of studies examined, 54 percent of the scholarship argues that

rhetorical logic is the most effective to utilize in conversations about miscellaneous topics

(Barbour et al., 2013; Barton & Stein, 2017; Caughlin et al., 2008; Edwards et al., 2008;

Edwards et al., 2020; Edwards & Shepherd, 2007; Lambert & Gillespie, 1994; O’Keefe, 1988;

O’Keefe & Lambert, 1989; Peterson & Albrecht, 1996; Scott et al., 2013; Strekalova et al., 2017;

White et al., 2014). These studies have been conducted in academic, health, business, political,

digital, and personal settings. Given the settings, these are spaces mostly where communication

is required for official reasons and where goals are a top concern. Hence, it is logical that the

participants in these studies have overwhelmingly agreed that rhetorical logic is most effective

for conversations that involve multiple people and that are about critical issues.

Less than nine percent of the scholarship argues that conventional logic is the most

effective to use in conversations about various topics (Hullman, 2004; Hullman & Behbehani,

2018). These studies were carried out in personal settings and were not conducted in academic,

health, business, political, or digital spaces. Given the settings, these are spaces mostly where

communication occurs leisurely and not on the clock. Thus, it is rational that the participants in

these studies have overwhelmingly agreed that conventional logic is the most effective for

conversations because social norms are frequently considered in households and among friend

groups and because goals are not considered frequently in established relationships.

Continuing on, less than nine percent of the scholarship argues that expressive,

conventional, and rhetorical logics are the most effective in an even capacity (Hample &

Dallinger, 1991; Stephens et al., 2005). These studies were completed in business or business-

like settings, and they were not conducted in academic, health, political, or digital spaces. Given

the settings, these are spaces where communication is essential for organizations or businesses to

DISSERTATION

thrive, fix issues, and satisfy customers. Since these studies were mainly about organizations and

people, it is justifiable that the participants of the studies were split on which logic was the most

effective because the focuses of the spaces differ hourly and because individuals have different

perspectives on products.

Moreover, 25 percent of the studies examined did not ask participants about their

perceptions on the most effective logics (Cortes et al., 2005; Herold et al., 1996; Kampf &

David, 2019; Merzdorf et al., 2019; Oh & LaRose, 2016; Xu et al., 2021). The studies on politics

and digital tools loosely used message-design logics theory to explain the importance of the

different types of logics, whereas some of the other studies were only focused on identifying

which logics were used the most frequently in different spaces.

DISSERTATION

Figure 3

Holistic Data on the Factors about the Most Effective Logics

Factors about the Most Used Logics

Considering the dozens of studies examined, over 40 percent of the scholarship did not

focus on examining the most used logics within different spaces (Barton & Stein, 2017; Edwards

et al., 2008; Kampf & David, 2019; Merzdorf et al., 2019; Ocaña & Busling, 2018; Oh &

LaRose, 2016; Peterson & Albrecht, 1996; Strekalova et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2021; Edwards et

The Most Effective Logics

Rhetorical Logic

Conventional Logic

Expressive, Conventional, and Rhetorical Logics

Not Applicable

Other

DISSERTATION

al., 2020). These studies were completed primarily on health, business, politics, and digital tools.

Given these settings, it is logical that these studies mainly gave participants hypothetical

situations to gauge their perceptions of effectiveness, as opposed to making the participants

create their own statements to assess frequency. Further, almost 13 percent of the studies argue

that expressive, conventional, and rhetorical logics are utilized evenly in different spaces

(Hample & Dallinger, 1991; Herold et al., 1996; Stephens et al., 2005). These projects pertained

to business, perception of peers, and memories. Given the focuses of these studies, it is rational

that the participants of the studies did not create statements in alignment with one another

because everyone has their own experiences with each category.

In addition, over 15 percent of the studies argue that rhetorical logic is used the most

frequently in different spaces (Edwards & Shepherd, 2007; O’Keefe, 1988; O’Keefe & Lambert,

1989; White et al., 2014). These studies were conducted in academic, personal, and political

settings. Given the spaces, it is rational that rhetorical logic is used the most frequently because

the primary purpose of communication in these settings is typically related to goals and

accomplishments.

Also, 25 percent of the studies argue that conventional logic is used the most frequently

in different settings (Barbour et al., 2013; Caughlin et al., 2008; Hullman, 2004; Lambert &

Gillespie, 1994; Scott et al., 2013; Hullman & Behbehani, 2018). These projects have taken

place in health, business, and personal spaces. Since several of these studies have taken place in

health settings, this occurrence illustrates a problem of communication being utilized that is not

preferred by patients. On the other hand, it is logical for conventional logic to be utilized

frequently in business and personal spaces because social rules are of high importance for

individuals.

DISSERTATION

Figure 4

Holistic Data on the Factors about the Most Used Logics

The Most Used Logics

Rhetorical Logic Conventional Logic Not Applicable Other

DISSERTATION

General Factors about Message-Design Logics Theory

There are various factors of message-design logics theory that are discussed within the

individual studies on the scholarship. First, the theory is founded on the concepts that individuals

interpret communication differently, that communication can be utilized to explain and complete

tasks, that people have different goals and priority levels with communication, and that obstacles

or conflicts can provide the framework for goals and messages (Caughlin et al., 2008; Hample &

Dallinger, 1991; Hullman & Behbehani, 2018; O’Keefe, 1988;). These factors are significant to

the communication discipline because they provide context that people should consider when

engaging with different audiences. Second, the theory also discusses that different logics capture

and convey different meanings to individuals within a conversation, that mental states of

communicators could impact how they develop messages, and that uncontrollable conditions can

influence how individuals respond in conversations, especially when conventional and rhetorical

logics are being utilized (Barton & Stein, 2017; Kampf & David, 2019; Scott et al., 2013;

Stephens et al., 2005). These factors are significant to the communication discipline because they

illustrate the uniqueness of messaging, the influence on people’s mental states with

communication, and the impact of unexpected elements with responses.

Third, the theory highlights how individuals typically will never design or execute the

exact same messages because everyone has different backgrounds, goals, and communication

skills (Edwards et al., 2008; Herold et al., 1996; Ocaña & Busling, 2018; O’Keefe, 1988). These

factors are significant to the communication discipline because they emphasize the complexity

and personalization of message design and message dissemination. In addition, the theory

showcases how rhetorical messaging can shift the viewpoints of others, how rhetorical

messaging can bring people together to accomplish similar objectives, and how rhetorical

DISSERTATION

messaging can demonstrate the perceived sophistication of communication (Barbour et al., 2013;

Barton & Stein, 2017; Lambert & Gillespie, 1994; Peterson & Albrecht, 1996; O’Keefe, 1988;

Strekalova et al., 2017; White et al., 2014). These factors are significant to the communication

discipline because they illustrate the importance of using advanced messaging skills to complete

goals and shape people’s mindsets on different topics. Likewise, the theory emphasizes the

importance of construct differentiation, focusing on the connection between message production

and relevant communication skills (Edwards et al., 2020; Merzdorf et al., 2019; O’Keefe, 1988;

Xu et al., 2021). These factors are significant because they highlight the importance of diversity,

thorough message development, and appropriate verbal and written skills. To examine a holistic

overview of the studies on message-design logics theory, readers can view Figures 5 and 6.

DISSERTATION

Figure 5

Holistic Overview of Studies on Message-Design Logics Theory

Early Studies on Message-Design Logics Theory

Authors and Years

Topic

Most Used

Logic

Most Effective

Logic

(O’Keefe, 1988)

Perceptions of Peers

Rhetorical

(O’Keefe & Lambert,

1989)

Producers and Receivers

Rhetorical

(Hample & Dallinger,

1991)

Perceptions of Peers

Even

(Herold et al., 1996)

Memories

Even

N/A

Studies Related to Health on Message-Design Logics Theory

Authors and Years

Topic

Most Used

Logic

Most Effective

Logic

(Lambert & Gillespie,

1994)

Conversations about

Hypertension

Conventional

Rhetorical

(Barton & Stein, 2017)

Conversations about

Diabetes

N/A

Rhetorical

(Scott et al., 2013)

Conversations about

Depression

Conventional

Rhetorical

(Caughlin et al., 2008)

HIV Disclosure

Conventional

Rhetorical

(Peterson & Albrecht,

1996)

Relationships among

Nurses

N/A

Rhetorical

(Strekalova et al., 2017)

Nurses and Patients

N/A

Rhetorical

(Xu et al., 2021)

Vaccinations

N/A

None

(Edwards et al., 2008)

Loneliness

N/A

Rhetorical

DISSERTATION

Studies Related to Personal Conversations on Message-Design Logics Theory

Authors and Years

Topic

Most Used

Logic

Most Effective

Logic

(Hullman, 2004)

Personal Conversations

Conventional

(Hullman & Behbehani,

2018)

Requests by Romantic

Partners

Conventional

(White et al., 2014)

Drinking Interventions

Rhetorical

Studies Related to Business and School on Message-Design Logics Theory

Authors and Years

Topic

Most Used

Logic

Most Effective

Logic

(Barbour et al., 2013)

Organizational Change

Conventional

Rhetorical

(Stephens et al., 2005)

Organizational Crises

Even

(Cortes et al., 2005)

Group Work in School

Conventional

and Rhetorical

N/A

(Ocaña & Busling,

2018)

Group Leaders

N/A

Expressive and

Rhetorical

Studies Related to Politics and Digital Tools on Message-Design Logics Theory

Authors and Years

Topic

Most Used

Logic

Most Effective

Logic

(Merzdorf et al., 2019)

Climate Change

N/A

(Kampf & David, 2019)

Political Messages

N/A

(Edwards & Shepherd,

2007)

Social Capital

Rhetorical

(Oh & LaRose, 2016)

Digital Networks

N/A

(Edwards et al., 2020)

Robots

N/A

Rhetorical

DISSERTATION

Figure 6

Holistic Overview of the Main Factors and Findings on Message-Design Logics Theory

*The colors of the left column illustrate which studies align with one another on a topic level.

**The findings of the right column highlighted in green illustrate research that aligns with

O’Keefe’s original data and factors in some capacity.

Scholars

Main Finding

O’Keefe

The researcher found that women utilized

rhetorical logic more than men and that people

who utilized expressive and conventional logics

were low in construct differentiation compared

to those who used rhetorical logic (O’Keefe,

1988).

O’Keefe and Lambert

The scholars found that people utilize different

logics based on their systematically unique

beliefs about communication situations and that

people’s communication intentions are

illustrated through the attribution of messages to

producers by respondents (O’Keefe, 1989).

Hample and Dallinger

The researchers found that expressive,

conventional, and rhetorical logics were utilized

relatively evenly (Hample & Dallinger, 1991).

Herold et al.

The scholars found that people in positive moods

utilized expressive and conventional logics

more, whereas people in negative moods utilized

rhetorical logic more (Herold et al., 1996).

Lambert and Gillespie

The researchers found that expressive logic was

used the least, that conventional logic was used

the most, and that rhetorical logic was the

preferred approach by patients because it helped

produce messages that showed empathy,

discussed treatment plans, and encouraged open

dialogue with physicians (Lambert & Gillespie,

1994).

Barton and Stein

The scholars found that rhetorical messages are

most preferred because patients feel their

humanity, worth, and health are considered and

valued (Barton & Stein, 2017).

Scott et al.

The scholars found that over 70 percent of the

generated messages utilized conventional logic

DISSERTATION

in the study’s first part and that rhetorical logic

was preferred the most in messages in the

study’s second part about disclosing health

issues with family (Scott et al., 2013).

Caughlin et al.

The researchers found that people used

conventional logic the most and rhetorical logic

the least when disclosing HIV status (Caughlin

et al., 2008).

Peterson and Albrecht

The scholars found that nurse managers who

utilize rhetorical logic with staff nurses who do

not use rhetorical logic receive the best results

from their employees (Peterson & Albrecht,

1996).

Strekalova et al.

The researchers found that rhetorical logic helps

produce high-quality responses about personal

health records (Strekalova et al., 2017).

Xu et al.

The scholars found that none of the messages

with expressive, conventional, or rhetorical

logics significantly shifted the beliefs of hesitant

parents about vaccinations (Xu et al., 2021).

Edwards et al.

The researchers found that messages with

expressive logic were associated with poor

support from friends and that messages with

rhetorical logic were associated with exceptional

support from friends (Edwards et al., 2008).

Hullman

The scholar found that hypothetical, personal

messages with conventional logic were viewed

as more effective most frequently (Hullman,

2004).

Hullman and Behbehani

The researchers found that conventional logic

was utilized most frequently in first and second

requests made by romantic partners (Hullman &

Behbehani, 2018).

White et al.

The scholars found that having more specific

goals led to “messages better aligned with

achieving those goals” and that “more

sophisticated design logic was related to a higher

sense of efficacy” (White et al., 2014, p. 93).

Barbour et al.

The researchers found that over 65 percent of

responses about organizational change used

conventional logic (Barbour et al., 2013).

Stephens et al.

The scholars found that “different crisis-message

strategies are used to communicate to different

stakeholders” and that organizations rarely “state

the technical facts with little or no explanation

DISSERTATION

provided to stakeholders” (Stephens et al., 2005,

p. 390).

Cortes et al.

The researchers found that Mexican participants

used rhetorical logic more than American

participants, proving that culture impacts

interpersonal construct differentiation and the

use of logics, and that there was not a significant

correlation between message-design logics and

gender (Cortes et al., 2005).

Ocaña and Busling

The scholars concluded that expressive messages

“elicit sufficient perceptions of threat or

seriousness to induce compliance,” that

rhetorical messages “offer enough face-saving

and understanding to elicit a reciprocal

response,” and that conventional messages do

not “elicit sufficient urgency or threat to

motivate behavioral change” (Ocaña and

Busling, 2018, p. 52).

Merzdorf et al.

The researchers found that demographics and

beliefs of misinformation are important facets to

consider before engaging in conversations meant

to persuade others about climate change issues

(Merzdorf et al., 2019).

Kampf and David

The scholars found that hawkish people are

driven farther away from a peace compromise

when they receive conciliatory messages, which

is why peace discourse scholars should be

cautious (Kampf & David, 2019).

Edwards and Shepherd

The researchers found that people who use

rhetorical logic had higher levels of social

capital and prosocial behavior compared to those

who use expressive and conventional logics

(Edwards & Shepherd, 2007).

Oh and LaRose

The scholars found that “the more effort people

put into message composition, the more likely

they are to produce a sophisticated support-

seeking message that serves an additional goal of

impression management” (Oh & LaRose, 2016,

p. 38).

Edwards et al.

The researchers found that participants had a

better understanding of robotic messages that

utilized more sophisticated designs compared to

those that used less sophisticated designs

(Edwards et al., 2020).

DISSERTATION

Related Literature on Music Videos

Multiple studies across different disciplines have investigated music videos on YouTube

in different contexts. First, this section will examine studies about the elements of music videos,

what motivates young people to watch creative works, and how music videos are effective in

educational spaces. Second, this part will review studies about how music videos integrate

alcohol, tobacco, and luxurious items into the visualizations and lyrics. Third, this portion will

analyze studies about cultural contexts, focusing on the similarities and differences among music

videos published on YouTube from around the world. Last, this section will examine studies

about how user-generated content contributes to the success of music videos, focusing on

memes, comments, and sharing on digital platforms.

Elements of Music Videos

Oh and Choeh (2022) conducted a study on music videos on YouTube, focusing on

engagement strategies that lead to the success of artists and their works. The scholars examined

almost 3,000 music videos by hundreds of artists across a span of four years, evaluating social

media engagement data. The researchers found that music videos with stories, visuals, and

performance generated higher engagement numbers from audience members and that works with

only audio generated lower engagement numbers from audience members. These results were

significant because they illustrated the importance of visualizations for engagement in the

communication discipline. These findings are relevant to consider for future projects because a

singer’s traditional music videos are the central component of any other studies, such as ones that

involve lyrical videos.

Music Videos and the Youth

DISSERTATION

Rucsanda and Belibou (2018) conducted a study on music videos on YouTube, focusing

on whether the number of views on videos influences people under the age of 18 to watch or not

watch a pop music video. The scholars collected quantitative data from over 100 participants to

identify their musical preferences, considering the top five songs on international charts

throughout five years. The scholars could not prove that the number of views on music videos

has any influence on whether young people choose to watch or not watch a music video. These

findings are relevant to consider for future projects because a musician’s fanbase is typically

composed of different groups of people and generations, including children.

Music Videos and Education

Several studies have examined the implications of music videos on education in learning

spaces for students. Allgaier (2013) conducted a mixed methods study on music videos on

YouTube, focusing on science communication and education. The researchers examined a

limited number of data to identify how the music videos about science could be categorized and

situated. The scholars found that music videos could benefit science communication and

education because of their ubiquitous appeal and that individuals who do not believe in scientific

results have utilized music videos to circulate their dangerous views. These results were

significant because they illustrated how different academic communities could utilize the

entertainment aspect of music videos on YouTube to help disseminate their content. Like the

previous study on education, Jaramillo and Solano (2019) conducted a study on music videos on

YouTube, focusing on their uses as educational resources to learn English. The researchers

collected qualitative and quantitative data from over 400 participants, including teachers and

students, to examine the effectiveness of the learning strategy. The scholars found that music

videos on YouTube help English learners with their listening and speaking because the videos

DISSERTATION

strengthen people’s vocabulary for different contexts verbally and visually and increase students’

motivation as a result of the entertainment. These findings are relevant to consider for future

projects because a singer’s uses of logics could serve as a model for others to effectively

communicate about personal relationships, which is often a neglected area in academia.

Comparing the studies from 2013 and 2019, readers can acknowledge the growth of the

applicability of music videos in educational spaces, especially within the fields of English and

science, because of the proven effectiveness of mixing entertainment and learning content.

Music Videos and Substance Depictions

Cranwell et al. (2015) conducted a mixed methods study on music videos on YouTube,

focusing on how the depictions of tobacco and alcohol influence children. The scholars

integrated the 40 best-performing music videos on YouTube during 12 weeks into their study,

finding that almost 50 percent of the videos included alcohol and that over 20 percent of the

videos included tobacco (see Figure 7). The researchers collected data from over 2,000 children,

finding that over 80 percent of them have viewed music videos that depict alcohol or tobacco.

These findings are relevant to consider for future projects because a musician’s content could

shift as they grow, which might expose children to mature content that cannot be found in earlier

works. As a continuation of the work from the previous study, Cranwell et al. (2017) conducted a

content analysis of music videos on YouTube, focusing on 49 of the best-performing videos in

the United Kingdom. The scholars coded the lyrics and visualizations about alcohol, establishing

three different results. The researchers concluded that alcohol was connected with sexual lyrics

and visualizations about women, was associated with social interactions, and was excessively

consumed with no consequences. These findings are relevant to consider for future projects

because there is an array of topics in music videos that could cause harm to viewers. Considering

DISSERTATION

the studies from 2015 and 2017, Lando et al. (2010) argued that there is direct data that proves a

significant correlation between children viewing content with harmful substances and then

subsequently using dangerous substances.

Figure 7

A Holistic Summary of Substances in Music Videos Across Genres

This chart was created in Microsoft Word with data from Cranwell et al. (2015).

Sales

Pop Electronic Hip-Hop Dance

Alternative House R&B Soundtrack

Charity Rock Singer/Songwriter Country

DISSERTATION

Music Videos and Product Placements

Similar to the studies on substance integrations, Sedeño-Valdellós and Schubert (2020)

conducted a qualitative study on music videos on YouTube, focusing on product placement of

luxurious items. The researchers examined 125 of the most viewed works on the platform,

considering the types of products and their locations. The scholars concluded that there have

been periods where product placement has not been prioritized in music videos, but that in recent

years, creators have focused on location profiles for luxurious items, such as clothing brands and

cars, and on integration profiles. These results were significant because they illustrated how

product placement in music videos has steadily increased over time and what brands are the most

prominent in the works, such as Gucci. These findings are relevant to consider for future projects

because the subject matter of visualizations is a crucial aspect to examine in connection with the

uses of expressive, conventional, and rhetorical logics in the lyrics.

Music Videos and Cultural Contexts

Various studies have analyzed cultural contexts and music videos published throughout

the world. Warner (2013) conducted a content analysis of Tibetan music videos on YouTube,

focusing on religious piety, civil disobedience, and protests. The scholars founded their project in

consideration of protests that occurred in Tibet in 2008, which triggered the need to interpret

political messaging within lyrics and imagery. The researchers found a significance between

online and offline connections between Tibetans in China and their supporters. These results

were important because they illustrated the power of music videos within politics and legality,

countering the narrative that works on YouTube are solely for entertainment. These findings are

relevant to consider for future projects because of the growing polarization around the world,

which is a direct threat to democracies or peaceful societies, as depicted in the study from a

DISSERTATION

decade ago. Like the previous study on a cultural matter, Baek (2015) conducted a quantitative

study on music videos on YouTube, focusing on different countries that listen to K-pop music.

The scholars examined data from YouTube and statistics from the World Bank to test their

“cultural proximity hypothesis,” which emphasized “cultural similarity as a main motive for

cross-cultural consumption,” and their “cultural exoticism hypothesis,” which highlighted

“cultural difference driving cross-cultural consumption” (p. 730). The researchers concluded that

people watch K-pop music videos the highest in countries that are similar and different to

Korean culture, validating both hypotheses. These results were significant because they

illustrated that individuals listened to music they liked, even if it did not align with their cultural

norms or expectations.

Similarly, Dlaske (2017) conducted a qualitative study on music videos on YouTube,

focusing on works in Irish and Sámi. The researchers examined the participants’ affective

investments, considering their digital platforms, ethical backgrounds, banal nationalism, and

volume speakers. The scholars found that social media applications enable effective investments

in languages and speakers, especially considering globalization and nationalism. These findings

are relevant to consider for future projects because audience members in the United States could

have similar circumstances to the participants in this study which should be investigated to help

them improve their strategies. Likewise, Kozman et al. (2021) conducted a content analysis of

music videos on YouTube, focusing on how gender plays a role in Arabic works. The scholars

examined 150 music videos by female artists to identify the elements or roles utilized, finding

that “they posed and danced sexually, used facial expressions to seduce, and exposed their skin”

(p. 1742). The researchers also concluded that “Lebanese artists were six times more likely to

display sexuality than Egyptian artists, and four times more than all other nationalities

DISSERTATION

combined” (p. 1742). These results were significant because they illustrated how females are

typically portrayed in music videos and how different cultures can influence the performances

and promiscuity in works. These findings are relevant to consider for future projects because

many musicians integrate sexual components in their music videos to grab the attention of

audience members, especially heterosexual men. Comparing the studies from 2013, 2015, 2017,

and 2021, readers can recognize the importance of analyzing music videos from a cultural

communication perspective because it enables scholars to recognize why similarities and

differences exist in different music videos produced around the world.

Music Videos and Engagements from Fans

Many studies have investigated how fans and their user-generated content influence the

success or failure of music videos in digital spaces. Schneider (2016) conducted a qualitative

study on user engagement with music videos on YouTube, focusing on the comments sections of

popular works. The researcher examined the most viewed music videos on the platform, coding

different comments and conversations about the works. The scholar found that nostalgia was a

consistent component in user-generated comments because people are interested in reflecting on

elements that remind them of sentimental moments from the past. These findings are relevant to

consider for future projects because people could re-watch music videos at different moments in

their lives and have different feelings or associations, especially if the works apply to different

eras.

Similarly, Sanchez-Olmos and Vinuela (2017) conducted a study on memes that arise

from music videos on YouTube, focusing on the metrics between the mediums. The scholars

examined 22 of the most viewed video memes on YouTube, finding that the memes have

significantly lower numbers of likes, dislikes, and comments compared to the official music

DISSERTATION

videos. These results were significant because they illustrated how people could reinterpret

works or highlight a particularly funny aspect of a music video, even though their memes were

not viewed as frequently as the main works. These findings are relevant to consider for future

projects because audience members could take the intended meanings of lyrics and visualizations

out of context by uploading edits of a singer’s music videos on YouTube or other platforms. Like

the previous project, Park (2018) conducted a study on how user-generated content and sharing

by people and companies of music videos on YouTube influences the success of works. The

scholar examined over 1,000 songs from South Korea, considering YouTube metrics and music

sales. The researchers found “that user engagement of UGC and CGC positively

influence music sales” and that “the effects are not static, but rather change in the initial, middle,

and final periods after a song is released” (p. 1880). These results were significant because they

illustrated that music videos would not be as successful without audience members circulating

the content for free on digital platforms. These findings are relevant to consider for future

projects, especially in an era where musicians rely on digital sales of music as opposed to

traditional methods, such as cassettes or compact discs. Comparing the studies from 2016 to

2018, readers can recognize that fans are a critical factor in the success of music videos,

especially because of their free user-generated content that involves memes, comments, and

sharing on digital platforms, such as Facebook or YouTube. In the next part, readers can examine

a holistic overview of studies on music videos on YouTube (see Figure 8).

DISSERTATION

Figure 8

Holistic Overview of Studies on Music Videos within YouTube

Authors and Years

Main Findings

(Oh & Choeh, 2022)

The researchers found that music videos with stories, visuals, and

performance generated higher engagement numbers from audience members

and that works with only audio generated lower engagement numbers from

audience members.

(Rucsanda &

Belibou, 2018)

The scholars could not prove that the number of views on music videos has

any influence on whether young people choose to watch or not watch a work.

(Allgaier, 2013)

The scholars found that music videos could benefit science communication

and education because of their ubiquitous appeal and that individuals who do

not believe in scientific results have utilized music videos to circulate their

dangerous views.

(Jaramillo & Solano,

2019)

The scholars found that music videos on YouTube help English learners with

their listening and speaking because they strengthen people’s vocabulary and

increase students’ motivation as a result of the entertainment.

(Cranwell et al.,

2015)

The researchers collected data from over 2,000 children, finding that over 80

percent of them have viewed music videos that depict alcohol or tobacco.

(Cranwell et al.,

2017)

The researchers concluded that alcohol was connected with sexual lyrics and

visualizations about women, was associated with social interactions, and was

excessively consumed with no consequences.

(Sedeño-Valdellós

& Schubert, 2020)

The scholars concluded that there have been periods where product placement

has not been prioritized in music videos, but that in recent years, creators

have focused on location profiles for luxurious items.

(Warner, 2013)

The researchers found a significance between online and offline connections

between Tibetans in China and their supporters.

(Baek, 2015)

The researchers concluded that people watch K-pop music videos the highest

in countries that are similar and different to Korean culture

(Dlaske, 2017)

The scholars found that social media applications enable effective

investments in languages and speakers, especially considering globalization

and nationalism.

(Kozman et al.,

2021)

The scholars examined 150 music videos by female artists to identify the

elements or roles utilized, finding that “they posed and danced sexually, used

facial expressions to seduce, and exposed their skin” (p. 1742).

(Schneider, 2016)

The scholar found that nostalgia was a consistent component in user-

generated comments because people are interested in reflecting on elements

that remind them of sentimental moments from the past.

(Sanchez-Olmos &

Vinuela, 2017)

The scholars examined 22 of the most viewed video memes on YouTube,

finding that the memes have significantly lower numbers of likes, dislikes,

and comments compared to the official music videos.

(Park, 2018)

The researchers found “that user engagement of UGC and CGC positively

influence music sales” and that “the effects are not static, but rather change in

the initial, middle, and final periods after a song is released” (p. 1880).

DISSERTATION

Social Media and Visualization Content

There are various studies that have examined social media, such as TikTok and YouTube,

and visualization content developed by public figures. Haenlein et al. (2020) completed an

analysis on the requirements to become a successful influencer on digital platforms, primarily

addressing content on TikTok. The researchers argued that the content creators who produce

content about topics “they are genuinely and authentically passionate about” are the individuals

who gain the most growth on social media applications (p. 19). Also, the scholars explained the

importance of uploading materials that align with social media algorithms because such content

statistically has better chances of disseminating successfully on digital platforms. In addition,

Johnson (2021) conducted a study on issues that develop on video applications connected to

copyrighted materials, such as with dances and songs. The researcher argued that musicians have

made substantial amounts of money via TikTok and YouTube because of the affordances to “add

and save sounds” and that dancers have not received financial compensation because they

typically do not receive the proper credit (p. 1232). In addition, the scholar discusses the

significance of creators using “copyright law as a way to vindicate their rights and ensure

ownership” (p. 1235).

Also, Kennedy (2020) completed a project on teenage girls and their influence on

TikTok. The researcher found that the younger female demographic has the most significant

impact on the application because of their dance videos with catchy captions and trending music.

The scholar also found that individuals, such as Charli D’Amelio, have enabled the harm of

social applications to be hidden because of financial and global success. This study is relevant

for the communication field because it could provide necessary context as to why artists’ works

have been used in TikTok videos and why individuals have featured captions in their uploads.

DISSERTATION

Like the previous project on influencers, Stratton (2021) conducted an analysis on musical works

that have inspired parodies, showcasing COVID-19 and TikTok. The scholar argued that various

parodies are developed by “semi-professional singers” and “amateurs” and that these works are

typically “commentaries on significant public or political events” (p. 412). This study is relevant

for the communication field because it highlights individuals who adjust the narrative of a

work’s original meaning or purpose.

Moreover, Jakubowska and Bogdanowska (2021) completed a project on literary works

across different eras, finding that literary texts are viewed differently and take on exclusive

meanings within different contexts and times. Additionally, the scholars found that trending

patterns of a “discursive change” occur because of “contacts with different cultures and

ideologies” (p. 301). This study is significant because it illustrates foundational knowledge as to

why social media content creators align certain texts to unintended topics. Similar to the previous

study on literary texts, Özkent (2022) conducted a study on social media platforms,

communication journals, and article citations. The researcher argued that digital applications,

such as YouTube, have influenced how individuals communicate with others and circulate

information. The scholar found "a positive correlation between exposure to social media and

article citations,” especially with the impact of global influence (p. 1). This analysis is relevant

for the communication field because it focuses on the potential effects of communicative, visual

works that have reimagined Swift’s intended meanings.

Summary

This chapter has reviewed the relevant literature associated with message-design logics

theory and Swift’s music videos. First, this section has reviewed how the study is situated in

some of Craig’s seven traditions and O’Keefe’s message-design logics theory. Second, this part

DISSERTATION

has examined literature about message-design logics, focusing on the main concepts, historical

elements, current uses, and central problems. The chosen articles about this theory have studied

various topics in connection to the three logics and are from the theory’s origination year to the

present day. Third, this portion has analyzed literature about music videos on YouTube, focusing

on messaging and audience members. The chosen articles have only pertained to academic

studies and are from 2005 to 2022 because this range encompasses the duration of YouTube’s

existence. Collectively, this section has furthered readers’ knowledge about message-design

logics theory and music videos through an examination of research projects.

DISSERTATION

Chapter Three: Methodology

Chapter Overview

This chapter will provide the methodology and active components of the study on

message-design logics theory and Swift’s music videos. First, this section will identify why a

qualitative approach and content analysis framework were the most appropriate for the project on

messaging, logics, lyrics, and visualizations. Second, this part will address that there were no

human participants involved in the project and that Swift’s music videos were the primary

instruments utilized. Third, this portion will examine the procedures for collecting, categorizing,

and analyzing the topics and logics of Swift’s works. Then, this section will review the data

analysis process and information about the coding software that ensured strong validity and

reliability for the study. Last, this chapter will analyze the Biblical and ethical considerations that

were considered for the dissertation and a short summary of the chapter.

Research Method and Design

This dissertation has collected qualitative data and operated as a content analysis because

it has examined “recorded communication” to identify “the manifest and the latent” meaning of

Swift’s music videos and to analyze themes about the logics within the works (Terrell, 2016, p.

161). Sedeño-Valdellós and Schubert (2020) completed a qualitative study on product placement

within music videos on YouTube, finding that the inclusion of luxury items has steadily

increased over the years. These results are relevant to acknowledge because they validate why a

qualitative method was appropriate for the project on Swift’s music videos and illustrate how

data could be efficiently identified. Likewise, Barton and Stein (2017) and Strekalova et al.

(2017) conducted qualitative studies on doctors, nurses, and patients with message-design logics

theory as an established framework to collect specific data, illustrating how a qualitative research

DISSERTATION

method could be successful when beginning with a theory, as opposed to traditionally aligning

research with a theory at the end. Additionally, Warner (2013) conducted a content analysis of

Tibetan music videos on YouTube to address religious piety, civil disobedience, and protests.

This study illustrates why a content analysis was appropriate for the project on Swift’s music

videos because the approach allowed scholars to examine specific facets or topics holistically,

which occurred in the dissertation due to the themes and logics utilized in the singer’s works.

Overall, conducting a qualitative content analysis was logical because it allowed non-numerical

data, including visualizations and lyrics, to be examined in connection with the logics in

O’Keefe’s theory.

Research Questions

The study has examined Swift’s 45 music videos to understand content that influences

people’s real-life communication strategies and to comprehend which use of logic makes content

about personal relationships the most popular.

Q1: What is the subject matter of the lyrics and visualizations in Taylor Swift’s music

videos on YouTube?

1.1: What general topic is the most prominent in Swift’s music videos?

1.2: What specific theme is the most prominent in Swift’s music videos?

1.3: What words are used the most frequently in Swift’s music videos?

Q2: How are the three facets of message-design logics theory used within Taylor Swift’s

music videos on YouTube?

2.1: What logic is used the most frequently within Swift’s music videos?

2.2: What logic is used the least within Swift’s music videos?

2.3: What logic is used in Swift’s 10 most-liked music videos?

DISSERTATION

Q3: How do the topics about personal relationships align with the three different types of

logics within Taylor Swift’s music videos on YouTube?

3.1: What logic is most frequently used in Swift’s videos about happy romantic

relationships?

3.2: What logic is most frequently used in Swift’s videos about sad romantic

relationships?

3.3: What logic is most frequently used in Swift’s videos about revenge?

Setting

One setting for the content analysis was Taylor Swift’s YouTube page, specifically under

the video tab on the platform. This online setting enabled all of Swift’s music videos, which have

been placed on a list in the third figure of the first chapter, to be identified and analyzed. Another

setting for the content analysis was AZLyrics because this platform separates the lyrics to Swift’s

music videos into stanzas.

Instruments

There were no human participants involved in the study, but there were 45 music videos

from Swift’s YouTube account examined. Based on release dates chronologically, those videos

by Swift (n.d.) include:

• Tim McGraw

• Teardrops On My Guitar

• Our Song

• I’m Only Me When I’m With You

• Picture To Burn

• Change

DISSERTATION

• Love Story

• White Horse

• You Belong With Me

• The Best Day

• Fifteen

• Fearless

• Mine

• Back to December

• Mean

• The Story of Us

• Sparks Fly

• Ours

• We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together

• Begin Again

• I Knew You Were Trouble

• 22

• Everything Has Changed

• Red

• The Last Time

• Shake It Off

• Blank Space

• Style

• Bad Blood

DISSERTATION

• Wildest Dreams

• Out of the Woods

• New Romantics

• Look What You Made Me Do

• Ready For It?

• End Game

• Delicate

• ME!

• You Need To Calm Down

• Lover

• The Man

• cardigan

• willow

• I Bet You Think About Me

• Anti-Hero

• Bejeweled

The visualizations were examined from Swift’s YouTube page, and the lyrics were

analyzed from AZLyrics. Both sources have been reviewed to establish the uses and rationales of

expressive, conventional, and rhetorical logics. Considering credibility, YouTube was founded in

2005 and has been a primary outlet for musicians to release their creative works, while AZLyrics

was founded in 2000 and has the lyrics of thousands of songs separated into appropriate stanzas.

Swift’s music videos were utilized for the project because those works have all been

radio singles, meaning that they have been chosen by the musician to be the most popular and

DISSERTATION

circulated. The visual content was identified to provide readers with more background context of

the communication, but it was not fully examined through a semiotic analysis because the focus

of the study was on wording via message-design logics theory as opposed to visualizations.

Procedures

According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), qualitative research must occur in a “natural

setting,” consider “multiple sources of data,” use the “researcher as a key instrument,” utilize an

“emergent design,” involve “inductive and deductive analysis,” and provide a “holistic account”

(p. 182). Reflecting on this information, this research has exemplified these characteristics and

has centered on subjective, open-ended data. Also, this project has used a qualitative research

strategy to investigate Swift’s evolution and message-design logics theory because it has relied

on “text and image data,” has incorporated “unique steps in data analysis,” and has drawn “on

diverse designs” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 179).

The first step was to place the URL links of Swift’s works into a document, including

from YouTube and AZLyrics. The second step was to individually identify the main subject

matter of the songs by placing them into general topic categories and by crafting specific themes

with textual evidence (see Figure 9). The topics and themes were selected based on the frequency

of uses in the works, meaning that a majority of lines in a work must have exemplified the topic

and theme. The third step was to import the lyrics from every song into Browserling Word

Frequency Counter, a software to code which words are used the most frequently. The fourth

step was to individually identify the most used visualizations of the videos by crafting five

descriptions for every song (see Figure 10). The fifth step was to examine how often expressive,

conventional, and rhetorical logics are utilized within the songs’ different stanzas, utilizing the

criteria established in O’Keefe’s 1988 study (see Figures 11 & 12). While most of the stanzas

DISSERTATION

exemplified entire columns of standards for the logics, the ones that did not were categorized

based on the majority of criteria that they did meet. The sixth step was to justify the rationales of

the uses of logics in consideration of the lyrics and visualizations, which will be discussed more

specifically in the data analysis section. These steps were completed individually for the videos,

meaning all of the data for the first video was collected and analyzed before proceeding to the

second video and so forth.

Figure 9

Example of Procedure for Step Two

Title of Music Video

General Topic

Specific Theme

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Figure 10

Example of Procedure for Step Four

Title of Music Video

The Main Visualizations

• A:

• B:

• C:

• A:

• B:

• C:

DISSERTATION

Figure 11

Example of Procedure for Step Five

Title of Music Video

Type of Logic

Stanza 1

Stanza 2

Stanza 3

Stanza 4

Stanza 5

Stanza 6

Stanza 7

Stanza 8

Stanza 9

Stanza 10

Figure 12

O’Keefe’s Evaluative Criteria for Message-Design Logics Theory

Expressive Logic

Conventional Logic

Rhetorical Logic

“Language is a medium for

expressing thoughts and

feelings” (O’Keefe, 1988, p.

85).

“Communication is a game

played cooperatively by

social rules” (O’Keefe, 1988,

p. 85).

“Communication is the

creation and negotiation of

social selves and situations”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85)

“Clarity of expression;

openness and honesty;

unimpeded signaling”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

“Appropriateness; control of

resources; cooperativeness”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

“Flexibility, symbolic

sophistication; depth of

interpretation” (O’Keefe,

1988, p. 85).

“Reaction to prior event”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

“Response specified by

present context” (O’Keefe,

1988, p. 85).

“Initiate movement toward

desired context” (O’Keefe,

1988, p. 85).

“Little attention to context”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

“Action and meaning context-

determined” (O’Keefe, 1988,

p. 85).

“Communication process

creates context” (O’Keefe,

1988, p. 85).

“Subjective and associative”

(O’Keefe, 1988, p. 85).

“Intersubjective and rule-

focused” (O’Keefe, 1988, p.

85).

“Intersubjective and style-

centered” (O’Keefe, 1988, p.

85).

Data Analysis

Regarding the first research question, the chart with the general topics and specific

themes of Swift’s works was categorized and examined to identify which subject matters and

DISSERTATION

themes are the most and least prominent in the music videos. To ensure accuracy and

trustworthiness, an application was utilized to situate the information and keep the data

organized. In addition, the imported lyrics into Browserling Word Frequency Counter were

examined to identify what words, for subject matter purposes, are featured the most in Swift’s

music videos. Since this software was utilized, readers can ensure that the validity and reliability

of the project were strong and accurate. Likewise, the chart about the main aspects of the

visualizations was categorized and examined to identify which images are the most and least

prominent in the music videos.

Regarding the second research question, the individual stanzas of the songs from

AZLyrics were analyzed, being deemed as using expressive logic if the content is about feelings

or thoughts, conventional logic if the content addresses societal norms or expectations, and

rhetorical logic if the content is rooted in individual or group goals. For each song, the uses of

logics were determined and stored into a chart by an application to ensure accuracy and

trustworthiness. The most and least frequently used logics were identified by combining all of

the stanzas’ uses into one data point. For instance, if 10 stanzas used rhetorical logic and three

stanzas used conventional logic within one work, then the work was classified in the rhetorical

logic column because of the clear supermajority. Additionally, Swift’s 10 most-liked music

videos were identified to determine which use of logic helps create the most popular songs.

Regarding the third research question, the data from the charts about general topics,

specific themes, main visualizations, and types of logics were correlated to examine how the

topics about personal relationships align with the three different types of logics within Swift’s

music videos on YouTube. For example, the most used logics in songs about happy

DISSERTATION

relationships, breakups, and revenge were determined by the data established in the previous

parts of the study.

Biblical Considerations

The Biblical perspective has impacted and guided this project, especially regarding its

methodology. 1 Corinthians 14:40 proclaims, “Let all things be done decently and in order”

(New King James Version Bible, 1982). This verse illustrates why the study has structured the

data collected into master lists about the topics, themes, visualizations, and logics utilized in

Swift’s music videos, which has allowed readers to see a clear progression of the results. From

this action, the study has ensured that it was conducted orderly and that no errors were made with

the transcriptions and calculations of the results.

Moreover, Proverbs 21:5 proclaims, “The plans of the diligent lead surely to plenty, but

those of everyone who is hasty, surely to poverty” (New King James Version Bible, 1982). This

verse illustrates why the study has examined Swift’s music videos, partially because she has

designed her works calculatedly and diligently and has been rewarded for her excellence. Also,

this verse aligns with message-design logics theory because a facet of the scholarship pertains to

considering individual and group objectives or goals.

Ethical Considerations

There were several ethical considerations to review in this project on Swift’s music

videos and their connections to message-design logics theory. Examining data from Swift’s

YouTube channel was ethical because the singer’s music videos are available to the public and

have been viewed billions of times by audience members. Having said that, Swift has the

comments sections activated on the music videos, which suggests that the musician expects and

encourages people to publish statements about the works. Through a consideration of precedent,

DISSERTATION

there are hundreds of studies that have examined music videos on an array of topics, such as

those by Oh and Choeh (2022), Sanchez-Olmos and Vinuela (2017), and Allgaier (2013). Hence,

it has been deemed by scholars that analyzing public music videos on YouTube does not require

approval from the creators of the works. Since no human participants were involved in the study,

there was no requirement or need to receive approval from Liberty University’s IRB. Therefore,

no evident or known harm could occur to individuals by conducting this qualitative content

analysis. Moreover, since the primary researcher has listened to Swift’s music for many years,

potential confirmation bias is important to acknowledge and will be avoided by following the

strict criteria and guidelines established in this methodology chapter.

Summary

This chapter has provided the methodology and active components of the study on

message-design logics theory and Swift’s music videos. First, this section has illustrated why a

qualitative approach and content analysis framework were the most appropriate for the project on

messaging, logics, lyrics, and visualizations. Second, this part has addressed that there were no

human participants involved in the project and that Swift’s music videos were the primary

instruments utilized. Third, this portion has examined the procedures for collecting, categorizing,

and analyzing the topics and logics of Swift’s works. Fourth, this section has reviewed the data

analysis process and information about the coding software that ensured strong validity and

reliability for the study. Last, this chapter has analyzed the Biblical and ethical considerations

that were considered for the dissertation and a short summary of the chapter.

DISSERTATION

Chapter Four: Results

Chapter Overview

This chapter will provide an analysis of the collected data in order to fully answer the

research questions posed in the previous chapter of this dissertation. First, the chapter begins

with a presentation of the project’s research questions, participants, and instruments. Second, the

chapter includes the results with explanations and figures for the questions about topics, themes,

visualizations, and logics related to Swift’s music videos. Last, the chapter concludes with a

specific summary.

Research Questions

The study has examined Swift’s 45 music videos to understand content that influences

people’s real-life communication strategies and to comprehend which use of logic makes content

about personal relationships the most popular.

Q1: What is the subject matter of the lyrics and visualizations in Taylor Swift’s music

videos on YouTube?

1.1: What general topic is the most prominent in Swift’s music videos?

1.2: What specific theme is the most prominent in Swift’s music videos?

1.3: What words are used the most frequently in Swift’s music videos?

Q2: How are the three facets of message-design logics theory used within Taylor Swift’s

music videos on YouTube?

2.1: What logic is used the most frequently within Swift’s music videos?

2.2: What logic is used the least within Swift’s music videos?

2.3: What logic is used in Swift’s 10 most-liked music videos?

DISSERTATION

Q3: How do the topics about personal relationships align with the three different types of

logics within Taylor Swift’s music videos on YouTube?

3.1: What logic is most frequently used in Swift’s videos about happy romantic

relationships?

3.2: What logic is most frequently used in Swift’s videos about sad romantic

relationships?

3.3: What logic is most frequently used in Swift’s videos about revenge?

Participants and Instruments

There were no human participants involved in the study, but there were 45 music videos

from Swift’s YouTube account examined. Based on release dates chronologically, those videos

by Swift (n.d.) include:

• Tim McGraw

• Teardrops On My Guitar

• Our Song

• I’m Only Me When I’m With You

• Picture To Burn

• Change

• Love Story

• White Horse

• You Belong With Me

• The Best Day

• Fifteen

• Fearless

DISSERTATION

• Mine

• Back to December

• Mean

• The Story of Us

• Sparks Fly

• Ours

• We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together

• Begin Again

• I Knew You Were Trouble

• 22

• Everything Has Changed

• Red

• The Last Time

• Shake It Off

• Blank Space

• Style

• Bad Blood

• Wildest Dreams

• Out of the Woods

• New Romantics

• Look What You Made Me Do

• Ready For It?

• End Game

DISSERTATION

• Delicate

• ME!

• You Need To Calm Down

• Lover

• The Man

• cardigan

• willow

• I Bet You Think About Me

• Anti-Hero

• Bejeweled

The visualizations were examined from Swift’s YouTube page, and the lyrics were

analyzed from AZLyrics. Both sources have been reviewed to establish the uses and rationales of

expressive, conventional, and rhetorical logics. Considering credibility, YouTube was founded in

2005 and has been a primary outlet for musicians to release their audiovisual works, while

AZLyrics was founded in 2000 and has the lyrics of thousands of songs separated into stanzas.

Swift’s music videos were utilized for the project because those works have all been

radio singles, meaning that they have been chosen by the musician to be the most popular and

circulated. The visual content was identified to provide readers with more background context of

the communication, but it was not fully examined through a semiotic analysis because the focus

of the study was on wording via message-design logics theory as opposed to visualizations.

Results of Research Questions

This section will provide answers to the posed questions about Swift’s music videos.

First, readers will learn about the subject matter of the lyrics and visualizations in Swift’s music

DISSERTATION

videos, focusing on the general topics, specific themes, and words included in the musician’s

works. Second, readers will learn about the most and least used logics in Swift’s works and about

the logic that is used the most frequently in the singer’s 10 most-liked YouTube videos. Lastly,

readers will learn how topics about personal relationships align with the three different types of

logics within Taylor Swift’s music videos on YouTube, focusing on happy romantic

relationships, sad romantic relationships, and revenge.

Research Question One

The general topic that is most prominent in Swift’s music videos is happy romance, as is

evident in 19 songs: Tim McGraw, Our Song, Change, Love Story, You Belong With Me,

Fearless, Mine, Sparks Fly, Ours, Begin Again, Everything Has Changed, Style, Ready For It?,

End Game, Delicate, ME!, Lover, cardigan, and willow. For example, Swift (2019a) sings, “Can

I go where you go? / Can we always be this close forever and ever? / And ah, take me out and

take me home [Forever and ever] / You're my, my, my, my Lover” (lines 14-18). These lyrics

exemplify communication about happy romance because Swift asks about staying with her lover

forever and addresses love in a traditionally positive manner. In addition, the general topic that is

the second most prominent in Swift’s music videos is sad romance, as is apparent in 13 songs:

Teardrops On My Guitar, White Horse, Fifteen, Back to December, The Story of Us, I Knew

You Were Trouble, Red, The Last Time, Blank Space, Wildest Dreams, Out of the Woods, New

Romantics, and I Bet You Think About Me. For instance, Swift (2012d) sings, “And the saddest

fear comes creeping in / That you never loved me or her, or anyone, or anything, yeah” (lines 37-

38). These lyrics exemplify communication about sad romance because Swift explicitly talks

about a sad fear and addresses a past lover who was never actually in love.

DISSERTATION

Other topics that are featured but not as prominent in Swift’s works include revenge [five

songs], empowerment [five songs], bonds with family or friends [two songs], and mental health

struggles [1 song]. To examine the general topics of all 45 music videos, readers can examine

Figures 13 and 14, which matter because they visually highlight the drastic differences for the

frequencies of the subject matters.

Figure 13

Data on the Topics Present in Swift’s Music Videos

The most prominent theme in Swift’s music videos is that people’s lives transform

positively when they start dating the right respectful partners who align with their values. For

example, in Everything Has Changed, Swift (2012c) sings, “All I know is a simple name /

Everything has changed / All I know is you held the door / You'll be mine and I'll be yours / All I

know since yesterday is everything has changed” (lines 12-16). These lyrics exemplify the theme

Topics in Swift's Music Videos

Happy Romance Sad Romance

Revenge Empowerment

Bonds with Family/Friends Mental Health Struggles

DISSERTATION

because the musician addresses her lover directly, implies monogamy, and communicates how

her life has shifted for the better. Additionally, in Change, Swift (2008a) sings, “These walls that

they put up to hold us back fell down / It's a revolution, throw your hands up / 'Cause we never

gave in / And we'll sing hallelujah, we sang hallelujah” (lines 38-42). These lyrics exemplify the

theme because the singer reveals how people can have their happy endings with romance if they

persist and never give up. To examine the specific themes with textual evidence examples of all

45 music videos, readers can view Figure 14.

Figure 14

Data on the Prominent Themes in Swift’s Lyrics

Music Video

General

Topic

Specific Theme

Textual Evidence

Tim McGraw

Happy

Romance

People can think of

happy memories

even when a

relationship is over.

“When you think Tim McGraw / I hope you

think of me” (Swift, 2006e, lines 17-18).

Teardrops On

My Guitar

Sad Romance

People can feel

controlled by their

partners and become

consumed by their

existence.

“He's the reason for the teardrops on my

guitar / The only thing that keeps me

wishing on a wishing star / He's the song in

the car I keep singing. Don't know why I

do” (Swift, 2006d, lines 13-15).

Our Song

Happy

Romance

People’s love stories

are determined by

their actions.

“Our song is the way you laugh / The first

date: ‘Man, I didn't kiss her, and I should

have.’ / And when I got home ... 'fore I said,

‘Amen’ / Asking God if he could play it

again” (Swift, 2006b, lines 17-20).

I’m Only Me

When I’m

With You

Bonds with

Family and

Friends

People’s values and

actions are

influenced by their

family and friends.

“The other half I'm only tryna let you know

that what I feel is true / And I'm only me

when I'm with you” (Swift, 2006a, lines 13-

14).

Picture To

Burn

Revenge

People seek revenge

when they feel

wronged.

“There's no time for tears / I'm just sitting

here planning my revenge / There's nothing

stopping me / From going out with all of

your best friends / And if you come around

saying sorry to me / My daddy's gonna

show you how sorry you'll be” (Swift,

2006c, lines 14-19).

DISSERTATION

Change

Happy

Romance

People can have

happy endings with

romance if they

persist and never

give up.

“These walls that they put up to hold us

back fell down / It's a revolution, throw

your hands up / 'Cause we never gave in /

And we'll sing hallelujah, we sang

hallelujah” (Swift, 2008a, lines 38-42).

Love Story

Happy

Romance

People sneak around

sometimes because

their loved ones do

not approve of their

partners.

“So, I sneak out to the garden to see you /

We keep quiet 'cause we're dead if they

knew / So, close your eyes / Escape this

town for a little while” (Swift, 2008d, lines

18-21).

White Horse

Sad Romance

People do not

always get their

happy endings with

romance as depicted

in fictional works.

“That I'm not a princess, this ain't a fairy

tale / I'm not the one you'll sweep off her

feet / Lead her up the stairwell / This ain't

Hollywood, this is a small town” (Swift,

2008f, lines 10-13).

You Belong

With Me

Happy

Romance

People are destined

to be with each

other, even if they

cannot see it.

“You belong with me / You belong with

me” (Swift, 2008g, lines 18-19).

The Best Day

Bonds with

Family and

Friends

People are

influenced positively

if they grow up with

good parents and

siblings.

“I have an excellent father, his strength is

making me stronger / God smiles on my

little brother, inside and out / He's better

than I am / I grew up in a pretty house and I

had space to run / And I had the best days

with you” (Swift, 2008e, lines 19-23).

Fifteen

Sad Romance

People are enticed

by the idea of love

when they are young

and might believe in

facades.

“You're gonna believe them / When you're

fifteen / And your first kiss makes your

head spin 'round / But in your life you'll do

things greater than / dating the boy on the

football team / But I didn't know it at

fifteen” (Swift, 2008c, lines 26-30).

Fearless

Happy

Romance

People can find true

love and feel

powerful with their

soulmates.

“And I don't know how it gets better than

this / You take my hand and drag me head

first / Fearless / And I don't know why but

with you I'd dance in a storm in my best

dress / Fearless” (Swift, 2008b, lines 15-

19).

Mine

Happy

Romance

People can be

positively impacted

by the people they

fall in love with.

“Do you remember, we were sitting there

by the water? / You put your arm around me

for the first time / You made a rebel of a

careless man's careful daughter / You are

the best thing that's ever been mine” (Swift,

2010c, lines 9-12).

Back to

December

Sad Romance

People can regret

their past mistakes

and long to restore a

“It turns out freedom ain't nothing but

missing you / Wishing I'd realized what I

had when you were mine / I'd go back to

DISSERTATION

relationship with a

past lover.

December, turn around and change my own

mind / I go back to December all the time”

(Swift, 2010a, lines 27-30).

Mean

Revenge

People can harm

others by being

mean, lying, and

spreading rumors.

“But all you are is mean / All you are is

mean / And a liar, and pathetic, and alone in

life / And mean, and mean, and mean, and

mean” (Swift, 2010b, lines 39-42).

The Story of

Sad Romance

People can become

consumed and

saddened when they

do not let go of a

bad relationship.

“...and we're not speaking / And I'm dying

to know is it killing you like it's killing me,

yeah? / I don't know what to say, since the

twist of fate 'cause we're going down / And

the story of us looks a lot like a tragedy now

/ The end” (Swift, 2010f, lines 42-46).

Sparks Fly

Happy

Romance

People can sense

invisible sparks that

inform them if they

should date someone

or not.

“'Cause I see sparks fly whenever you smile

/ Get me with those green eyes, baby, as the

lights go down / Give me something that'll

haunt me when you're not around / 'Cause I

see sparks fly whenever you smile” (Swift,

2010e, lines 14-17).

Ours

Happy

Romance

People are envious

of others in happy

relationships,

especially when they

are single and alone.

“So don't you worry your pretty little mind /

People throw rocks at things that shine /

And life makes love look hard / Don't you

worry your pretty little mind / People throw

rocks at things that shine / But they can't

take what's ours / They can't take what's

ours” (Swift, 2010d, lines 34-40).

We Are

Never Ever

Getting Back

Together

Revenge

People cannot

restore a relationship

with a lover when

too much damage or

heartbreak has been

done.

“We are never ever ever getting back

together / We are never ever ever getting

back together / You go talk to your friends,

talk to my friends, talk to me” (Swift,

2012g, lines 11-13).

Begin Again

Happy

Romance

People gain the

confidence to start to

date again when

they least expect it

and when they are

around someone

who feels safe.

“And you throw your head back laughing

like a little kid / I think it's strange that you

think I'm funny 'cause he never did / I've

been spending the last eight months /

Thinking all love ever does is break and

burn and end / But on a Wednesday in a

cafe I watched it begin again” (Swift,

2012b, lines 13-17).

I Knew You

Were Trouble

Sad Romance

People recognize the

abuse and trauma

they have

experienced in an

ended relationship.

“And the saddest fear comes creeping in /

That you never loved me or her, or anyone,

or anything, yeah” (Swift, 2012d, lines 37-

38).

DISSERTATION

100

Empowerment

People grow up and

start to see progress

in their lives.

“I don't know about you / But I'm feeling 22

/ Everything will be alright / If you keep me

next to you / You don't know about me /

But I'll bet you want to” (Swift, 2012a, lines

12-17).

Everything

Has Changed

Happy

Romance

People’s lives can

transform positively

when they start

dating the right

respectful person.

“All I know is a simple name / Everything

has changed / All I know is you held the

door / You'll be mine and I'll be yours / All

I know since yesterday is everything has

changed” (Swift, 2012c, lines 12-16).

Red

Sad Romance

People can struggle

to end a relationship,

especially when

memories will not

let them.

“Remembering him comes in flashbacks

and echoes / Tell myself it's time now, gotta

let go / But moving on from him is

impossible / When I still see it all in my

head / In burning red / Burning, it was red”

(Swift, 2012e, lines 28-33).

The Last

Time

Sad Romance

People can be

desperate when they

should end a

relationship but still

seek their partner’s

attention.

“This is the last time I'm asking you this /

Put my name at the top of your list / This is

the last time I'm asking you why / You

break my heart in the blink of an eye, eye,

eye” (Swift, 2012f, lines 13-16).

Shake It Off

Empowerment

People can become

empowered when

they do not focus on

romance and haters

and when they focus

on themselves.

“'Cause the players gonna play, play, play,

play, play / And the haters gonna hate, hate,

hate, hate, hate / Baby, I'm just gonna

shake, shake, shake, shake, shake / I shake

it off, I shake it off” (Swift, 2014e, lines 14-

17).

Blank Space

Sad Romance

People can poorly

stereotype others

when they have

consistent issues

with dating.

“Boys only want love if it's torture / Don't

say I didn't, say I didn't warn ya / Boys only

want love if it's torture / Don't say I didn't

say, I didn't warn ya” (Swift, 2014b, lines

64-67).

Style

Happy

Romance

People’s love stories

will never fade if

they are rooted in

authenticity and

truth.

“You got that James Dean daydream look in

your eye / And I got that red lip classic

thing that you like / And when we go

crashing down (when we go) / We come

back every time / 'Cause we never go out of

style / We never go out of style” (Swift,

2014f, lines 41-46).

Bad Blood

Revenge

People seek revenge

on people they once

respected, valued, or

loved because they

have been wronged.

“'Cause, baby, now we got bad blood / You

know it used to be mad love / So take a look

what you've done / 'Cause, baby, now we

got bad blood / Hey / Now we got problems

/ And I don't think we can solve them / You

DISSERTATION

101

made a really deep cut / And, baby, now we

got bad blood” (Swift, 2014a, lines 1-9).

Wildest

Dreams

Sad Romance

People struggle to

let go of

relationships and do

not want the other

person to forget

about them.

“Say you'll remember me / Standin' in a

nice dress / Starin' at the sunset, babe / Red

lips and rosy cheeks / Say you'll see me

again / Even if it's just in your / Wildest

dreams, ah, ha / Wildest dreams, ah, ha”

(Swift, 2014g, lines 10-16).

Out of the

Woods

Sad Romance

People can feel

trapped in

relationships and

want out, but they

might not know how

to get out.

“Are we out of the woods yet? / Are we out

of the woods yet? / Are we out of the woods

yet? / Are we out of the woods?” (Swift,

2014d, lines 10-13).

New

Romantics

Sad Romance

People can feel

defeated by romance

because they have

not found their true

soulmates.

“Baby, we're the new romantics / Come on,

come along with me / Heartbreak is the

national anthem / We sing it proudly / We

are too busy dancing / To get knocked off

our feet / Baby, we're the new romantics /

The best people in life are free” (Swift,

2014c, lines 13-20).

Look What

You Made

Me Do

Revenge

People can plot

revenge specifically

on many individuals

and harm others

shamelessly.

“But I got smarter, I got harder in the nick

of time / Honey, I rose up from the dead, I

do it all the time / I've got a list of names

and yours is in red, underlined / I check it

once, then I check it twice, oh” (Swift,

2017c, lines 9-12).

Ready For It?

Happy

Romance

People’s dreams are

a reflection of their

desires or potential

realities.

“In the middle of the night, in my dreams /

You should see the things we do, baby / In

the middle of the night, in my dreams / I

know I'm gonna be with you, so I take my

time / Are you ready for it” (Swift, 2017d,

lines 13-17)?

End Game

Happy

Romance

People can settle

down with a partner

and be with them

until they die.

“I wanna be your end game / I wanna be

your first string / I wanna be your A-Team

(Whoa, whoa, whoa) / I wanna be your end

game, end game” (Swift, 2017b, lines 1-4).

Delicate

Happy

Romance

People neglect to

consider false

rumors or poor

statements about the

person they love.

“This ain't for the best / My reputation's

never been worse, so / You must like me for

me / We can't make / Any promises now,

can we, babe? / But you can make me a

drink” (Swift, 2017a, lines 1-6).

ME!

Happy

Romance

People are unique

and cannot be

duplicated.

“I'm the only one of me / Let me keep you

company-e-e-eh / Ooh-ooh-ooh-ooh /

You're the only one of you / Baby, that's the

fun of you / And I promise that nobody's

DISSERTATION

102

gonna love you like me-e-e-eh” (Swift,

2019b, lines 34-39).

You Need To

Calm Down

Empowerment

People need to mind

their business and

not bother others

who are doing no

harm.

“You need to calm down / You're being too

loud / And I'm just like / ‘Oh-oh, oh-oh, oh-

oh, oh-oh, oh-oh! You need to just stop /

Like, can you just not step on my gown? /

You need to calm down’” (Swift, 2019d,

lines 15-21).

Lover

Happy

Romance

People can fall in

love and want to

spend eternity with

another person.

“Can I go where you go? / Can we always

be this close forever and ever? / And ah,

take me out and take me home (Forever and

ever) / You're my, my, my, my / Lover”

(Swift, 2019a, lines 14-18).

The Man

Empowerment

People might be

treated unfairly,

especially women,

even though they

can perform the

same or do better

than men.

“I'm so sick of running as fast as I can /

Wondering if I'd get there quicker if I was a

man / And I'm so sick of them coming at me

again / 'Cause if I was a man, then I'd be the

man” (Swift, 2019c, lines 9-12).

cardigan

Happy

Romance

People can feel

worthless, but a

partner can help

someone see their

own worth and

value.

“And when I felt like I was an old cardigan

under someone's bed / You put me on and

said I was your favorite / A friend to all is a

friend to none / Chase two girls, lose the

one / When you are young, they assume you

know nothing” (Swift, 2020a, lines 13-17).

willow

Happy

Romance

People are proud of

their partners and

want to follow along

with them on their

journeys.

“The more that you say, the less I know /

Wherever you stray, I follow / I'm begging

for you to take my hand / Wreck my plans,

that's my man / You know that my train

could take you home / Anywhere else is

hollow / I'm begging for you to take my

hand / Wreck my plans, that's my man”

(Swift, 2020b, lines 15-22).

I Bet You

Think About

Sad Romance

People struggle to

store away their

memories of past

relationships and let

them consume them

in new relationships.

“But now that we're done and it's over / I

bet you couldn't believe / When you

realized I'm harder to forget than I was to

leave / And I bet you think about me”

(Swift, 2021, lines 9-12).

Anti-Hero

Mental Health

Struggles

People struggle with

depression and feel

things that do not

match reality.

“I have this thing where I get older, but just

never wiser / Midnights become my

afternoons / When my depression works the

graveyard shift, all of the people I've

ghosted stand there in the room” (Swift,

2022a, lines 1-4).

DISSERTATION

103

Bejeweled

Empowerment

People can have

positive self-esteem

and shine when they

allow themselves to.

“Best believe I'm still bejeweled / When I

walk in the room / I can still make the

whole place shimmer” (Swift, 2022a, lines

7-9).

Regarding the most used words in Swift’s lyrics, there are three main categories to

organize the vocabulary, excluding articles, prepositions, and conjunctions. Pronouns such as I,

you, we, and me are used the most frequently in Swift’s works, which are presented frequently in

first and second-person points of view. In various works, the combination of you and I is used

frequently because Swift is communicating about her own life and situations. Swift also speaks

to her past selves at different ages, as if she could go back in time and give advice to younger

versions of herself. Verbs and adjectives also are used, such as think and red, but they rank

significantly lower on the most used list. To examine the most and second-most used words in

Swift’s works, readers can view Figure 15, which matters because it visually showcases

vocabulary patterns within the music videos.

Figure 15

Data on the Most Used Words in Swift’s Lyrics

Pronouns / Verbs / Adjectives

[Articles, Prepositions, and Conjunctions = Excluded]

Music Video

Most

Used

Word

Second Most

Used Word

Tim McGraw

Think

You

Teardrops On My Guitar

He’s

Our Song

Our

I’m Only Me When I’m With

You

I’m

Picture To Burn

You’re

Change

You

Will

Love Story

You

White Horse

You

DISSERTATION

104

You Belong With Me

You

The Best Day

Know

Fifteen

You

You’re

Fearless

You

Mine

You

Back to December

You

Mean

You

The Story of Us

You

Sparks Fly

You

Ours

You

Love

We Are Never Ever Getting

Back Together

You

Begin Again

You

I Knew You Were Trouble

Trouble

You

Everything Has Changed

Know

You

Red

Him

The Last Time

You

Last

Shake It Off

Shake

Blank Space

You

Style

Bad Blood

You

Wildest Dreams

You’ll

Out of the Woods

Are

New Romantics

Look What You Made Me Do

You

Ready For It?

Begin

End Game

Wanna

Delicate

Isn’t

ME!

You

You Need To Calm Down

You

Need

Lover

You

The Man

cardigan

You

willow

You

I Bet You Think About Me

You

Anti-Hero

It’s

Bejeweled

You

There are many different visualizations used in Swift’s 45 music videos, but there are

some depictions that occur repeatedly. For example, 12 music videos include happy couples, five

DISSERTATION

105

music videos include sad couples, various works include vehicles, several works include fire, and

many works take place in school or nature settings. To examine a comprehensive list of the main

visualizations in all of Swift’s music videos, readers can view Figure 16, which matters because

it showcases how the musician has progressed from work to work.

Figure 16

Data on the Visualizations in Swift’s Music Videos

Music Video

Visualizations

Tim McGraw

Happy couple, music player/radio, nature, truck, handwritten

letter

Teardrops On My Guitar

School hallway, school library, guitar, happy couple, envious

girl

Our Song

Phone, flowers, sparkly guitar, happy girl

I’m Only Me When I’m With

You

Footage of mom and brother, footage of friends, footage of

cat, footage of Swift performing, footage of Swift dancing

Picture To Burn

Old picture, new couple, truck, fire, trashed apartment

Change

Cowboy boots, church glass, band members, flashing lights,

wooden walls

Love Story

Prince/princess, ordinary students, castle, garden, white dress

White Horse

Rain, happy couple, sad girl, cheating guy, tears

You Belong With Me

Written notes, nerdy girl, popular guy, football game, prom

The Best Day

Childhood home footage, tractor, horse, baby brother, song

poster

Fifteen

Sunshine, flowers, happy couple, sad couple, tears/rain

Fearless

Band uniform, stage, fans, wings, homemade signs

Mine

Arguing parents, pictures, beach, new house, engagement

ring

Back to December

Sad couple, tears, snow, handwritten page, jackets

Mean

Banjo, farm, girl tied up on train tracks, bullies, Broadway

stage

The Story of Us

Chapter separations, school library, awkward lovers,

sunshine, thrown papers

Sparks Fly

Fans, gold sparks, confetti, fireworks, priest

Ours

Crowded elevator, rude employees, cubicles, post-it note,

happy couple—guy in the military

We Are Never Ever Getting

Back Together

Strong girl, weak guy, phones, bar, people in animal

costumes

Begin Again

River, bike, happy couple, café, brick road

I Knew You Were Trouble

Trash, complicated couple, car, tattoo of love, cops at a bar

Not A Lot Going On Shirt, cake, black hats, confetti, heart

glasses

DISSERTATION

106

Everything Has Changed

School bus, friends-to-lovers, playground, markers, dance

floor in a school gym

Red

Fans, red lights, red equipment, red lipstick, red flags

The Last Time

Fans, sad couple, stools, candles, hearts

Shake It Off

Ballerinas, rappers, snake necklace, hearts, cheerleaders

Blank Space

White cat/horse, mansion, picnic, vandalism, tears

Style

Forest, broken mirror, guy and girl in sync, lightning, beach

Bad Blood

Villains, broken glass, laboratory, weapons, fire explosion

Wildest Dreams

Movie set, sunshine, wild animals, movie premiere red

carpet, real-life happy couple

Out of the Woods

Ocean, forest/trees, wolves, snow/rain, fire

New Romantics

Fans, glowsticks, dancers, umbrellas, smoke

Look What You Made Me Do

Graveyard, car wreck, snakes, cages, old versions of Swift

Ready For It?

Graffiti, alley, robot, controller, explosion

End Game

Yacht, city lights, fireworks, motorcycles, alcohol

Delicate

Bodyguards, red carpet, invisible girl, subway, rain

ME!

Snake, arguing couple, happy couple, cat, slime

You Need To Calm Down

I Am A Rich Man sign, trailer on fire, colorful people, tea

party, crown

Lover

Snow globe with houses, fish tank, movie projector, happy

couple, Christmas room with family

The Man

NYC business office, subway, yacht, tennis court, entitled

man

cardigan

Gold magic in piano, forest, waterfall, ocean, girl in a

cardigan

willow

Gold magic string, reflection in water, older/younger

couples, black capes, happy couple

I Bet You Think About Me

Wedding altar, velvet wedding cake, reflection of old lover

in red, married couple, past couple dancing

Anti-Hero

Girl having a psychotic breakdown, alcohol, VOTE sticker,

funeral, family fighting about the will

Bejeweled

House wench with evil step-mom and step-sisters, diamonds,

glitter, engagement ring, castle with dragons

(Swift, n.d.).

Research Question Two

This section will explain how the three facets of message-design logics theory are used in

Swift’s music videos on YouTube (see Figures 17 & 18). First, the uses of logics are established

individually for all of Swift’s albums, including Taylor Swift, Fearless, Speak Now, Red, 1989,

reputation, Lover, folklore, evermore, and Midnights. The most frequently used logic is revealed

for every music video, and there are examples of textual evidence throughout the different

DISSERTATION

107

subsections (see Appendix B). Second, data is presented on the most used logics in Swift’s most-

liked music videos to explain the elements of what makes the musician’s communicative works

popular.

Taylor Swift

In the Taylor Swift music videos, the musician uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in

Tim McGraw, I’m Only Me When I’m With You, and Picture To Burn, conventional logic the

most frequently in Teardrops On My Guitar, and expressive logic the most frequently in Our

Song. First, Swift (2006e) uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in Tim McGraw, such as

when the musician sings, “But when you think Tim McGraw / I hope you think my favorite song

/ The one we danced to all night long” (lines 9-11). These lyrics illustrate rhetorical logic

because the singer is creating a desired context about a happy moment, is negotiating a situation,

and is focused on the goal of persuading a past lover to remember their romance (O’Keefe,

1988). Second, the singer uses conventional logic the most frequently in Teardrops On My

Guitar, such as when the musician sings, “He's the reason for the teardrops on my guitar / The

only thing that keeps me wishing on a wishing star / He's the song in the car I keep singing. Don't

know why I do” (Swift, 2006d, lines 13-15). These lyrics exemplify conventional logic because

the artist’s words are generated by the established context of a past relationship and by the social

norms of missing someone (Hullman, 2004). Third, the artist uses expressive logic the most

frequently in Our Song, such as when the musician sings, “I was walking up / The front porch

steps / After everything that day / Had gone all wrong / And been trampled on” (Swift, 2006b,

lines 21-25). These lyrics exemplify expressive logic because the singer’s words establish little

context, exist because of a prior event, and focus on personal feelings (Ocaña & Busling, 2018).

Fearless

DISSERTATION

108

In the music videos for Fearless, Swift uses conventional logic the most frequently in

White Horse, The Best Day, Fifteen, and Fearless, rhetorical logic the most frequently in Change

and You Belong With Me, and expressive logic the most frequently in Love Story. First, Swift

(2008f) uses conventional logic the most frequently in White Horse, such as when the musician

sings, “That I'm not a princess, this ain't a fairy tale / I'm not the one you'll sweep off her feet /

Lead her up the stairwell / This ain't Hollywood, this is a small town” (lines 10-13). These lyrics

illustrate conventional logic because the artist’s words are generated by the established context

of a romance in a small town and by the rule-focused norms of social class and dating (Hullman

& Behbehani, 2018). In addition, the singer uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in Change,

such as when the musician sings, “Tonight we stand, get off our knees / Fight for what we've

worked for all these years / And the battle was long, it's the fight of our lives / But we'll stand up

champions tonight” (Swift, 2008a, lines 32-35). These lyrics exemplify rhetorical logic because

the artist is using intersubjective language, is initiating a movement toward a wanted context, and

is focused on the goal of winning a battle for romance (O’Keefe & Lambert, 1989). Utilizing

expressive logic the most frequently in Love Story, Swift (2008d) sings, “I got tired of waiting /

Wondering if you were ever coming around / My faith in you was fading / When I met you on

the outskirts of town” (lines 37-40). These lyrics depict expressive logic because the singer

reacts to a prior occurrence, uses subjective language, and focuses on personal thoughts

(O’Keefe, 1988).

Speak Now

Throughout the Speak Now music videos, Swift uses rhetorical logic the most frequently

in Back to December, Mean, Sparks Fly, and Ours and conventional logic the most frequently in

Mine and The Story of Us. Using rhetorical logic the most frequently in Back to December,

DISSERTATION

109

Swift (2010a) sings, “It turns out freedom ain't nothing but missing you / Wishing I'd realized

what I had when you were mine / I'd go back to December, turn around and make it all right”

(lines 12-14). These lyrics exemplify rhetorical logic because the musician is creating a

hypothetical social self, is generating movement toward the context of restoring a relationship,

and is striving to persuade a past lover to feel the same way (O’Keefe, 1988). Utilizing

conventional logic the most frequently in Mine, Swift (2010c) sings, “Flash forward and we're

taking on the world together / And there's a drawer of my things at your place / You learn my

secrets and you figure out why I'm guarded / You say we'll never make my parents' mistakes”

(lines 13-16). These lyrics illustrate conventional logic because the responses feature

intersubjective language, are specified by the current context of the romance, and are influenced

by social norms of wanting to avoid generational mistakes (Barbour et al., 2013).

Red

In the music videos for Red, Swift uses conventional logic the most frequently in Begin

Again, 22, and The Last Time, expressive logic the most frequently in I Knew You Were

Trouble and Red, and rhetorical logic the most frequently in Everything Has Changed. The

musician utilizes expressive logic and rhetorical logic evenly throughout the stanzas in We Are

Never Ever Getting Back Together and I Bet You Think About Me. First, Swift (2012a) uses

conventional logic the most frequently in 22, such as when the artist sings, “I don't know about

you / But I'm feeling 22 / Everything will be alright / If you keep me next to you” (lines 12-15).

These lyrics depict conventional logic because the singer’s response is derived from the social

norms and present context of her turning 22 years old (O’Keefe, 1988). Second, the musician

utilizes expressive logic the most frequently in Red, such as when the artist sings, “Touching him

was like realizing all you ever wanted was right there in front of you / Memorizing him was as

DISSERTATION

110

easy as knowing all the words to your old favorite song” (Swift, 2012e, lines 14-15). These lyrics

exemplify expressive logic because the singer provides little context, is reacting to prior

experiences, and focuses on unforgettable feelings about a past lover (O’Keefe, 1988). Third,

Swift (2012c) uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in Everything Has Changed, such as

when the musician sings, “All I know is a simple name / Everything has changed / All I know is

you held the door / You'll be mine and I'll be yours / All I know since yesterday is everything has

changed” (lines 12-16). These lyrics illustrate rhetorical logic because the artist uses

intersubjective language, creates the context of her love story, establishes the goal of being a

priority to her lover, and depicts a new social self because everything in her world has shifted

(White et al., 2014).

1989

Throughout the 1989 music videos, Swift uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in

Shake It Off, Blank Space, Wildest Dreams, and Out of the Woods and conventional logic the

most frequently in Style, Bad Blood, and New Romantics. Utilizing rhetorical logic the most

frequently in Out of the Woods, Swift (2014d) sings, “Are we out of the woods yet? / Are we in

the clear yet” (lines 10-11)? These lyrics exemplify rhetorical logic because the musician uses

intersubjective language, seeks to generate a new context of freedom, and focuses on the goal of

escaping a toxic situation (Barton & Stein, 2017). Using conventional logic the most frequently

in Bad Blood, Swift (2014a) sings, “'Cause, baby, now we got bad blood / You know it used to

be mad love / So take a look what you've done / 'Cause, baby, now we got bad blood” (lines 1-4).

These lyrics exemplify conventional logic because they are established by a present context of

betrayal and illustrate social norms or rules for disloyalty (O’Keefe, 1988).

reputation

DISSERTATION

111

In the reputation music videos, Swift uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in Ready

For It?, End Game, and Delicate and expressive logic the most frequently in Look What You

Made Me Do. First, Swift (2017b) uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in End Game, such

as when the musician sings, “I wanna be your end game / I wanna be your first string / I wanna

be your A-Team (Whoa, whoa, whoa) / I wanna be your end game, end game” (lines 1-4). These

lyrics illustrate rhetorical logic because the singer is creating a social self and situation in

connection to a long-term relationship and is initiating a movement toward a desired context with

a potential life-long lover (Scott et al., 2013). Second, Swift (2017c) utilizes expressive logic the

most frequently in Look What You Made Me Do, such as when the artist sings, “Ooh, look what

you made me do / Look what you made me do / Look what you just made me do” (lines 13-15).

These lyrics exemplify expressive logic because the musician shares accusatory thoughts about a

prior event related to crime, provides little context, and uses subjective language (O’Keefe,

1988).

Lover

Throughout the Lover music videos, Swift uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in

ME! and You Need To Calm Down and conventional logic the most frequently in Lover and The

Man. Using rhetorical logic the most frequently in You Need To Calm Down, Swift (2019d)

sings, “And we see you over there on the Internet / Comparing all the girls who are killing it /

But we figured you out / We all know now / We all got crowns / You need to calm down” (lines

44-49). These lyrics exemplify rhetorical logic because the artist seeks to persuade hateful people

to mind their own business, uses intersubjective language, and creates a desired context to stand

up to bullies (Strekalova et al., 2017). Utilizing conventional logic the most frequently in The

Man, Swift (2019c) sings, “I'm so sick of running as fast as I can / Wondering if I'd get there

DISSERTATION

112

quicker if I was a man / And I'm so sick of them coming at me again / 'Cause if I was a man, then

I'd be the man” (lines 9-12). These lyrics depict conventional logic because the responses are

rooted in unjust social norms or rules about gender and are specified by the present context of

misogyny (O’Keefe, 1988).

folklore, evermore, and Midnights

In the music video for folklore titled cardigan, Swift (2020a) uses conventional logic the

most frequently, such as when the musician sings, “Vintage tee, brand new phone / High heels

on cobblestones / When you are young, they assume you know nothing / Sequin smile, black

lipstick / Sensual politics / When you are young, they assume you know nothing” (lines 1-6).

These lyrics illustrate conventional logic because the statements are rooted in social norms about

youth and are specified by the present context of misogyny (O’Keefe, 1988). Additionally,

throughout the music video for evermore titled willow, Swift (2020b) utilizes rhetorical logic the

most frequently, such as when the artist sings, “The more that you say, the less I know /

Wherever you stray, I follow / I'm begging for you to take my hand / Wreck my plans, that's my

man” (lines 6-9). These lyrics exemplify rhetorical logic because the singer uses persuasive

language with a lover and initiates movement toward the desired context of two people being in

love (Hullman & Behbehani, 2018).

Throughout the music videos for Midnights, Swift uses conventional logic the most

frequently in Anti-Hero and rhetorical logic the most frequently in Bejeweled. Utilizing

conventional logic the most frequently in Anti-Hero, Swift (2022a) sings, “I have this thing

where I get older, but just never wiser / Midnights become my afternoons / When my depression

works the graveyard shift, all of the people / I've ghosted stand there in the room” (lines 1-4).

These lyrics exemplify conventional logic because the present context of nighttime and

DISSERTATION

113

depression is established and the social norms of mental health influence the response (Scott et

al., 2013). Using rhetorical logic the most frequently in Bejeweled, Swift (2022b) sings,

“Familiarity breeds contempt / Don't put me in the basement / When I want the penthouse of

your heart / Diamonds in my eyes / I polish up real / I polish up real nice” (lines 13-18). These

lyrics illustrate rhetorical logic because the artist seeks to gain respect from a lover, references a

new social self, and initiates movement toward a desired context of a healthy relationship

(O’Keefe, 1988).

Figure 17

Concise Summary of the Findings on Message-Design Logics Theory

Album

Findings about Message-Design Logics Theory

*These findings are discussed more in depth in Chapter Five: Discussion

Taylor Swift

Lyrics from this project illustrate rhetorical logic because the singer is

creating a desired context about a happy moment, is negotiating a situation,

and is focused on the goal of persuading a past lover to remember their

romance (O’Keefe, 1988).

Lyrics from this project exemplify conventional logic because the artist’s

words are generated by the established context of a past relationship and by

the social norms of missing someone (Hullman, 2004).

Lyrics from this project exemplify expressive logic because the singer’s

words establish little context, exist because of a prior event, and focus on

personal feelings (Ocaña & Busling, 2018).

Fearless

Lyrics from this project illustrate conventional logic because the artist’s

words are generated by the established context of a romance in a small town

and by the rule-focused norms of social class and dating (Hullman &

Behbehani, 2018).

Lyrics from this project exemplify rhetorical logic because the artist is using

intersubjective language, is initiating a movement toward a wanted context,

and is focused on the goal of winning a battle for romance (O’Keefe &

Lambert, 1989).

Lyrics from this project depict expressive logic because the singer reacts to

a prior occurrence, uses subjective language, and focuses on personal

thoughts (O’Keefe, 1988).

DISSERTATION

114

Speak Now

Lyrics from this project exemplify rhetorical logic because the musician is

creating a hypothetical social self, is generating movement toward the

context of restoring a relationship, and is striving to persuade a past lover to

feel the same way (O’Keefe, 1988).

Lyrics from this project illustrate conventional logic because the responses

feature intersubjective language, are specified by the current context of the

romance, and are influenced by social norms of wanting to avoid

generational mistakes (Barbour et al., 2013).

Red

Lyrics from this project depict conventional logic because the singer’s

response is derived from the social norms and present context of her turning

22 years old (O’Keefe, 1988).

Lyrics from this project exemplify expressive logic because the singer

provides little context, is reacting to prior experiences, and focuses on

unforgettable feelings about a past lover (O’Keefe, 1988).

Lyrics from this project illustrate rhetorical logic because the artist uses

intersubjective language, creates the context of her love story, establishes

the goal of being a priority to her lover, and depicts a new social self

because everything in her world has shifted (White et al., 2014).

1989

Lyrics from this project exemplify rhetorical logic because the musician

uses intersubjective language, seeks to generate a new context of freedom,

and focuses on the goal of escaping a toxic situation (Barton & Stein, 2017).

Lyrics from this project exemplify conventional logic because they are

established by a present context of betrayal and illustrate social norms or

rules for disloyalty (O’Keefe, 1988).

reputation

Lyrics from this project illustrate rhetorical logic because the singer is

creating a social self and situation in connection to a long-term relationship

and is initiating a movement toward a desired context with a potential life-

long lover (Scott et al., 2013).

Lyrics from this project exemplify expressive logic because the musician

shares accusatory thoughts about a prior event related to crime, provides

little context, and uses subjective language (O’Keefe, 1988).

Lover

Lyrics from this project exemplify rhetorical logic because the artist seeks

to persuade hateful people to mind their own business, uses intersubjective

language, and creates a desired context to stand up against bullies

(Strekalova et al., 2017).

Lyrics from this project depict conventional logic because the responses are

rooted in unjust social norms or rules about gender, and are specified by the

present context of misogyny (O’Keefe, 1988).

DISSERTATION

115

folklore

Lyrics from this project illustrate conventional logic because the statements

are rooted in social norms about youth and are specified by the present

context of misogyny (O’Keefe, 1988).

evermore

Lyrics from this project exemplify rhetorical logic because the singer uses

persuasive language with a lover and initiates movement toward the desired

context of two people being in love (Hullman & Behbehani, 2018).

Midnights

Lyrics from this project exemplify conventional logic because the present

context of nighttime and depression is established, and the social norms of

mental health influence the response (Scott et al., 2013).

Lyrics from this project illustrate rhetorical logic because the artist seeks to

gain respect from a lover, references a new social self, and initiates

movement toward a desired context of a healthy relationship (O’Keefe,

1988).

Figure 18

Data on the Logics Used in Swift’s Music Videos

Music Video

Most Used Logics Per Stanzas

Tim McGraw

Rhetorical Logic

Teardrops On My Guitar

Conventional Logic

Our Song

Expressive Logic

I’m Only Me When I’m With You

Rhetorical Logic

Picture To Burn

Rhetorical Logic

Change

Rhetorical Logic

Love Story

Expressive Logic

White Horse

Conventional Logic

You Belong With Me

Rhetorical Logic

The Best Day

Conventional Logic

Fifteen

Conventional Logic

Fearless

Conventional Logic

Mine

Conventional Logic

Back to December

Rhetorical Logic

Mean

Rhetorical Logic

The Story of Us

Conventional Logic

Sparks Fly

Rhetorical Logic

Ours

Rhetorical Logic

We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together

Expressive Logic + Rhetorical Logic

Begin Again

Conventional Logic

I Knew You Were Trouble

Expressive Logic

Conventional Logic

Everything Has Changed

Rhetorical Logic

Red

Expressive Logic

DISSERTATION

116

The Last Time

Conventional Logic

Shake It Off

Rhetorical Logic

Blank Space

Rhetorical Logic

Style

Conventional Logic

Bad Blood

Conventional Logic

Wildest Dreams

Rhetorical Logic

Out of the Woods

Rhetorical Logic

New Romantics

Conventional Logic

Look What You Made Me Do

Expressive Logic

Ready For It?

Rhetorical Logic

End Game

Rhetorical Logic

Delicate

Rhetorical Logic

ME!

Rhetorical Logic

You Need To Calm Down

Rhetorical Logic

Lover

Conventional Logic

The Man

Conventional Logic

cardigan

Conventional Logic

willow

Rhetorical Logic

I Bet You Think About Me

Expressive Logic + Rhetorical Logic

Anti-Hero

Conventional Logic

Bejeweled

Rhetorical Logic

Uses of Logics in Swift's Music Videos

Rhetorical Logic

Conventional Logic

Expressive Logic

Rhetorical Logic + Expressive Logic

DISSERTATION

117

This next section will focus on data that illustrates the most-used logics in Swift’s most-

liked music videos to explain the elements of what makes the musician’s communicative works

popular (see Figure 19). Seven of Swift’s 10 most-liked works on YouTube use rhetorical logic:

You Belong With Me, Shake It Off, Blank Space, Wildest Dreams, Delicate, ME!, and You

Need To Calm Down. Two of Swift’s 10 most-liked works on YouTube use expressive logic:

Love Story and Look What You Made Me Do. One of Swift’s 10 most-liked works on YouTube

uses conventional logic: Bad Blood. Considering these results, Swift utilizes the most

sophisticated, effective logic per the creator of message-design logics theory the most frequently

in her top liked works (O’Keefe, 1988). Figure 19 matters because it showcases the most-liked

music videos in connection with their genres and the most used logics per stanzas.

Figure 19

Data on the Most Used Logics in Swift’s Most-Liked Music Videos

Music Video

Most Used Logics Per

Stanzas

Likes / Views

Album / Genre

Blank Space

Rhetorical Logic

14 million / 3.1 billion

1989 / Pop

Shake It Off

Rhetorical Logic

12 million / 3.2 billion

1989 / Pop

Look What

You Made Me

Expressive Logic

12 million / 1.3 billion

reputation / Pop

Bad Blood

Conventional Logic

9.5 million / 1.5 billion

1989 / Pop

You Belong

With Me

Rhetorical Logic

9.2 million / 1.4 billion

Fearless / Country

ME!

Rhetorical Logic

6.1 million / 402 million

Lover / Pop

DISSERTATION

118

Wildest

Dreams

Rhetorical Logic

5.2 million / 865 million

1989 / Pop

Love Story

Expressive Logic

4.7 million / 671 million

Fearless / Country

You Need To

Calm Down

Rhetorical Logic

4.5 million / 303 million

Lover / Pop

Delicate

Rhetorical Logic

4.2 million / 499 million

reputation / Pop

Research Question Three

In the happy romance music videos, Swift utilizes rhetorical logic the most frequently in

Tim McGraw, Change, You Belong With Me, Sparks Fly, Ours, Everything Has Changed,

Ready For It?, End Game, Delicate, ME!, and willow; she uses conventional logic the most

frequently in Fearless, Mine, Begin Again, Style, Lover, and cardigan; and she uses expressive

logic the most frequently in Our Song and Love Story (see Figure 20). Also, throughout the sad

romance music videos, Swift uses conventional logic the most frequently in Teardrops On My

Guitar, White Horse, Fifteen, The Story of Us, The Last Time, and New Romantics; she utilizes

rhetorical logic the most frequently in Back to December, Blank Space, Wildest Dreams, and

Out of the Woods; and she uses expressive logic the most frequently in I Knew You Were

Trouble and Red (see Figure 20). Moreover, in revenge the music videos, Swift uses rhetorical

logic the most frequently in Picture To Burn and Mean; she utilizes conventional logic the most

frequently in Bad Blood; and she uses expressive logic the most frequently in Look What You

Made Me Do (see Figure 20).

Considering message-design logics theory, these findings connect with O’Keefe’s

argument that different forms of knowledge, reasoning, and identities can contribute to different

structures in communication, such as with one’s uses of expressive, conventional, and rhetorical

DISSERTATION

119

logics (1988). Likewise, these findings connect with O’Keefe’s beliefs that rhetorical messages

should have patterns and structures established in order to reach their desired effects, that

rhetorical message producers tend to build off of others’ contributions in order to persuade or

influence an audience, and that rhetorical language relies on the inflection in which words are

spoken or written (1988).

Figure 20

Data on the Alignment of Topics and Logics for Swift’s Music Videos

The Uses of Logics in Swift's Works about Happy Romance

Rhetorical Logic Conventional Logic Expressive Logic

DISSERTATION

120

The Uses of Logics in Swift's Works about Sad Romance

Rhetorical Logic Conventional Logic

Expressive Logic Expressive Logic + Rhetorical Logic

DISSERTATION

121

Summary

This chapter has provided an analysis of the collected data with the research questions

posed in the previous chapter of this dissertation. First, the chapter has begun with a presentation

of the project’s research questions, participants, and instruments. Second, the chapter has

included the results with explanations and figures for the questions about topics, themes,

visualizations, and logics related to Swift’s music videos. The general topic that is most

The Uses of Logics in Swift's Works about Revenge

Rhetorical Logic Conventional Logic

Expressive Logic Expressive Logic + Rhetorical Logic

DISSERTATION

122

prominent in Swift’s music videos is happy romance, as is evident in 19 songs: Tim McGraw,

Our Song, Change, Love Story, You Belong With Me, Fearless, Mine, Sparks Fly, Ours, Begin

Again, Everything Has Changed, Style, Ready For It?, End Game, Delicate, ME!, Lover,

cardigan, and willow. The general topic that is the second most prominent in Swift’s music

videos is sad romance, as is apparent in 13 songs: Teardrops On My Guitar, White Horse,

Fifteen, Back to December, The Story of Us, I Knew You Were Trouble, Red, The Last Time,

Blank Space, Wildest Dreams, Out of the Woods, New Romantics, and I Bet You Think About

Me.

Further, the most prominent theme in Swift’s music videos is that people’s lives

transform positively when they start dating the right respectful partners who align with their

values and make them feel secure. Considering vocabulary, pronouns such as I, you, we, and me

are used the most frequently in Swift’s works, which are produced frequently in first and second-

person points of view. Also, there are many different visualizations used in Swift’s 45 music

videos, but there are some depictions that occur repeatedly. For example, 12 music videos

include happy couples, five music videos include sad couples, various works include vehicles,

several works include fire, and many works take place in school or nature settings.

In the Taylor Swift music videos, the musician uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in

Tim McGraw, I’m Only Me When I’m With You, and Picture To Burn; she utilizes conventional

logic the most frequently in Teardrops On My Guitar; and she uses expressive logic the most

frequently in Our Song. Throughout the music videos for Fearless, Swift uses conventional logic

the most frequently in White Horse, The Best Day, Fifteen, and Fearless; she utilizes rhetorical

logic the most frequently in Change and You Belong With Me; and she uses expressive logic the

most frequently in Love Story. In the Speak Now music videos, Swift uses rhetorical logic the

DISSERTATION

123

most frequently in Back to December, Mean, Sparks Fly, and Ours, and she utilizes conventional

logic the most frequently in Mine and The Story of Us. Throughout the music videos for Red,

Swift uses conventional logic the most frequently in Begin Again, 22, and The Last Time; she

utilizes expressive logic the most frequently in I Knew You Were Trouble and Red; she uses and

rhetorical logic the most frequently in Everything Has Changed. In the 1989 music videos, Swift

uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in Shake It Off, Blank Space, Wildest Dreams, and Out

of the Woods, and she utilizes conventional logic the most frequently in Style, Bad Blood, and

New Romantics. Throughout the reputation music videos, Swift uses rhetorical logic the most

frequently in Ready For It?, End Game, and Delicate, and she utilizes expressive logic the most

frequently in Look What You Made Me Do. In the Lover music videos, Swift uses rhetorical

logic the most frequently in ME! and You Need To Calm Down, and she utilizes conventional

logic the most frequently in Lover and The Man. Throughout the music video for folklore titled

cardigan, Swift uses conventional logic the most frequently. In the music video for evermore

titled willow, Swift utilizes rhetorical logic the most frequently. Throughout the music videos for

Midnights, Swift uses conventional logic the most frequently in Anti-Hero and rhetorical logic

the most frequently in Bejeweled.

Seven of Swift’s 10 most-liked works on YouTube use rhetorical logic: You Belong With

Me, Shake It Off, Blank Space, Wildest Dreams, Delicate, ME!, and You Need To Calm Down.

Two of Swift’s 10 most-liked works on YouTube use expressive logic: Love Story and Look

What You Made Me Do. One of Swift’s 10 most-liked works on YouTube uses conventional

logic: Bad Blood. Focusing on the musician’s most prominent topic in the music videos, happy

romance, Swift utilizes rhetorical logic the most frequently in Tim McGraw, Change, You

Belong With Me, Sparks Fly, Ours, Everything Has Changed, Ready For It?, End Game,

DISSERTATION

124

Delicate, ME!, and willow; she uses conventional logic the most frequently in Fearless, Mine,

Begin Again, Style, Lover, and cardigan; and she utilizes expressive logic the most frequently in

Our Song and Love Story.

DISSERTATION

125

Chapter Five: Discussion

Chapter Overview

The purpose of this qualitative study on Swift’s music videos was to comprehend content

that influences people’s real-life communication strategies and to understand which use of logic

makes works about personal relationships the most popular. This purpose was relevant because it

helped discover structures of messages that are popular and pertain to different situations within

personal relationships by an award-winning artist and director. One significance of the study was

that it would provide more understanding of the limited and inconsistent scholarship on personal

relationships with message-design logics theory, which is important because the data can help

communication scholars recognize which logics make content about personal relationships the

most popular. Another significance of the study involved the influence of Swift’s music on

people’s real-life experiences that pertain to communication. According to Ceres (2023), Swift’s

fandom “speaks a language all their own” by weaving the musician’s “lyrics into conversation”

and by understanding the contexts of the words (p. 3). Collectively, this project has examined

Swift’s 45 music videos to accomplish the purpose and to contribute to a specific subject matter

that has never been conducted in the communication discipline. This chapter includes the

overview, summary of results, discussion, implications, delimitations and limitations, future

research, and the summary.

Summary of Results

This section will summarize the results of the research questions about topics, themes,

visualizations, and logics related to Swift’s music videos. The general topic that is most

prominent in Swift’s music videos is happy romance, as is apparent in 19 songs: Tim McGraw,

Our Song, Change, Love Story, You Belong With Me, Fearless, Mine, Sparks Fly, Ours, Begin

DISSERTATION

126

Again, Everything Has Changed, Style, Ready For It?, End Game, Delicate, ME!, Lover,

cardigan, and willow. Next, the general topic that is the second most prominent in Swift’s music

videos is sad romance, as is evident in 13 songs: Teardrops On My Guitar, White Horse, Fifteen,

Back to December, The Story of Us, I Knew You Were Trouble, Red, The Last Time, Blank

Space, Wildest Dreams, Out of the Woods, New Romantics, and I Bet You Think About Me. In

addition, the most prominent theme in Swift’s music videos is that people’s lives transform

positively when they start dating the right respectful partners who align with their values.

Regarding vocabulary, pronouns such as I, you, we, and me are used the most frequently

in Swift’s works, which are sung frequently in first and second-person points of view.

Additionally, there are various visualizations used in Swift’s 45 music videos, but there are some

depictions that occur repeatedly. For instance, 12 music videos include happy couples, five

music videos include sad couples, various works include vehicles, several works include fire, and

many works take place in school or nature settings.

Throughout the Taylor Swift music videos, the musician uses rhetorical logic the most

frequently in Tim McGraw, I’m Only Me When I’m With You, and Picture To Burn; she utilizes

conventional logic the most frequently in Teardrops On My Guitar; and she uses expressive logic

the most frequently in Our Song. In the music videos for Fearless, Swift uses conventional logic

the most frequently in White Horse, The Best Day, Fifteen, and Fearless; she utilizes rhetorical

logic the most frequently in Change and You Belong With Me; and she uses expressive logic the

most frequently in Love Story. Throughout the Speak Now music videos, Swift uses rhetorical

logic the most frequently in Back to December, Mean, Sparks Fly, and Ours, and she utilizes

conventional logic the most frequently in Mine and The Story of Us. In the music videos for Red,

Swift uses conventional logic the most frequently in Begin Again, 22, and The Last Time; she

DISSERTATION

127

utilizes expressive logic the most frequently in I Knew You Were Trouble and Red; and she uses

rhetorical logic the most frequently in Everything Has Changed. Throughout the 1989 music

videos, Swift uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in Shake It Off, Blank Space, Wildest

Dreams, and Out of the Woods, and she utilizes conventional logic the most frequently in Style,

Bad Blood, and New Romantics. In the reputation music videos, Swift uses rhetorical logic the

most frequently in Ready For It?, End Game, and Delicate, and she utilizes expressive logic the

most frequently in Look What You Made Me Do. Throughout the Lover music videos, Swift

uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in ME! and You Need To Calm Down, and she utilizes

conventional logic the most frequently in Lover and The Man. In the music video for folklore

titled cardigan, Swift uses conventional logic the most frequently. Throughout the music video

for evermore titled willow, Swift utilizes rhetorical logic the most frequently. In the music videos

for Midnights, Swift uses conventional logic the most frequently in Anti-Hero, and she utilizes

rhetorical logic the most frequently in Bejeweled.

Seven of Swift’s 10 most-liked works on YouTube use rhetorical logic: You Belong With

Me, Shake It Off, Blank Space, Wildest Dreams, Delicate, ME!, and You Need To Calm Down.

Two of Swift’s 10 most-liked works on YouTube use expressive logic: Love Story and Look

What You Made Me Do. One of Swift’s 10 most-liked works on YouTube uses conventional

logic: Bad Blood. Considering the musician’s most prominent topic in the music videos, which is

happy romance, Swift utilizes rhetorical logic the most frequently in Tim McGraw, Change, You

Belong With Me, Sparks Fly, Ours, Everything Has Changed, Ready For It?, End Game,

Delicate, ME!, and willow; she uses conventional logic the most frequently in Fearless, Mine,

Begin Again, Style, Lover, and cardigan; and she utilizes expressive logic the most frequently in

Our Song and Love Story.

DISSERTATION

128

Discussion

Swift’s music videos have billions of views and have had a direct impact on people’s

communicative decisions (Atkinson, 2022; Ceres, 2023). Regarding part of the first research

question, it is logical that the most prominent topics in Swift’s works are about happy and sad

romance and that the most prominent theme pertains to a person’s positive transformation

through dating and entering into romantic relationships. These results are reasonable because

Swift has been in relatively public romantic relationships and friendships with fellow celebrities,

writing songs that are based on her real life (Today, 2010). According to Swift (2023), the

musician’s albums have been “excruciatingly autobiographical,” and some of her songs explain

“step-by-step” how to communicate, such as for apologies (The Eras Tour, 0:46-2:17). For

example, from Swift’s third country album, Dear John was written about her ex-boyfriend John

Mayer who is significantly older than the musician, exemplified the toxic components of their

relationship, and illustrated how to publicly call out someone’s poor, manipulative behavior

(Rolling Stone, 2012). In addition, these results are important to acknowledge because they

illustrate why Swift’s works are directly or indirectly impacting people’s communication

approaches to their romantic or personal relationships. To visualize the examined communicator,

readers can view Figure 21, which includes images owned by the dissertation author who took

the photographs during the musician’s The Eras Tour concert show in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

The show became the city’s most attended ticketed event in history (Malinak, 2023).

DISSERTATION

129

Figure 21

Personal Photographs of Swift Owned by Dissertation Author, Matthew Magliocca

Swift sang The Story of Us from Speak Now, which was a song analyzed in this dissertation.

Swift sang the closing song for The Eras Tour in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

DISSERTATION

130

Regarding another aspect of the first question, it is rational that pronouns are the most

used words in Swift’s works because the artist sings about real personal relationships and

experiences through first- and second-person points of view. Through different music videos,

such as The Story of Us and I Knew You Were Trouble, Swift (n.d.) illustrates that situations

within the same realms require different communication approaches and styles, depending on the

relationship and history that one has with other individuals (see Figure 14). Additionally, Swift’s

works influence people’s real-life communication because the musician integrates statements of

normal prose that individuals could say in everyday conversations and does not only use

metaphors, similes, and other literary devices in her works (see Figure 14).

Regarding part of the second research question, it is justifiable that Swift uses different

logics the most frequently in the music videos because they come from 10 albums that illustrate

unique journeys across different periods. Throughout the Taylor Swift music videos, the musician

uses rhetorical logic the most frequently, which is appropriate because the album captures “the

dreams and desires of a girl on the cusp of womanhood with candor, intelligence, and sweetness”

(Apple Music, 2006, para. 1). In the music videos for Fearless, Swift uses conventional logic the

most frequently, which is reasonable because the album captured the social rules and norms of

romantic crushes and relationships and helped the musician “shift from teen sensation to a

mature artist” (Apple Music, 2008, para. 1). Throughout the Speak Now music videos, Swift uses

rhetorical logic the most frequently, which is understandable because the album showcased the

singer’s “growth and assertiveness” through songs drawn from “personal experience,”

“unpredictable relationships,” and “vulnerability,” highlighting “creative and personal

metamorphosis” (Apple Music, 2010, para. 1). In the music videos for Red, Swift uses

conventional logic the most frequently, which is logical because the album illustrated relatable

DISSERTATION

131

social norms, such as the feeling of “vengeance” and “the neon-lit pulse of a dance floor” (Apple

Music, 2012, para. 1). Throughout the 1989 music videos, Swift uses rhetorical logic the most

frequently, which is rational because the album seeks to accomplish goals, such as shaking things

off, getting revenge, escaping, falling in love, and being remembered (Apple Music, 2014).

In the reputation music videos, Swift uses rhetorical logic the most frequently, which is

valid because the album was a comeback to restore the musician’s reputation after Kanye West

sparked a cancellation campaign against her on social media (Chiu, 2022). Throughout the Lover

music videos, Swift uses rhetorical logic and conventional logic evenly, which is appropriate

because the album focuses on topics that pertain to societal rules and objective goals, such as

love, politics, and equality (Apple Music, 2019). In the music video for folklore titled cardigan,

Swift uses conventional logic the most frequently, which is reasonable because the album was

inspired by isolation and societal rules during the COVID-19 pandemic when the singer was 30

years old (Apple Music, 2020b). Throughout the music video for evermore titled willow, Swift

utilizes rhetorical logic the most frequently, which is understandable because the work is about

building a strong romantic relationship and feeling proud (Apple Music, 2020a). In the music

videos for Midnights, Swift uses conventional logic and rhetorical logic evenly, which is logical

because the album illustrated “the stories of 13 sleepless nights” and focused on topics that

pertain to societal rules and objective goals, such as mental health struggles and female

empowerment (Apple Music, 2022, para. 3).

Considering the 10 albums, Swift uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in five albums,

conventional logic the most frequently in three albums, and both rhetorical and conventional

logic evenly in two albums. While Swift uses expressive logic the most frequently in several

songs, the musician does not use it frequently across albums because the works are specific,

DISSERTATION

132

socially centered, context-focused, and goal-focused (O’Keefe, 1988). Examining the 10 most-

liked music videos on YouTube, Swift uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in seven of them,

which is justifiable because the type of logic is considered to be the most sophisticated, effective,

and well-received according to Lambert and Gillespie (1994), White et al. (2014), Barton and

Stein (2017), and Edwards et al. (2020).

For example, Swift (2017c) utilizes expressive logic the most frequently in her third

most-liked work titled Look What You Made Me Do, such as when the artist sings, “Ooh, look

what you made me do / Look what you made me do / Look what you just made me do” (lines 13-

15). These lyrics exemplify expressive logic because the musician shares accusatory thoughts

about a prior event related to crime, provides little context, and uses subjective language

(O’Keefe, 1988). Likewise, this communication is self-involved and unsophisticated, which is

why only a fifth of the most-liked works utilize expressive logic the most frequently.

Using conventional logic the most frequently in her fourth most-liked work titled Bad

Blood, Swift (2014a) sings, “'Cause, baby, now we got bad blood / You know it used to be mad

love / So take a look what you've done / 'Cause, baby, now we got bad blood” (lines 1-4). These

lyrics exemplify conventional logic because they are established by a present context of betrayal

and illustrate social norms or rules for disloyalty (O’Keefe, 1988). Having said that, this

communication is more sophisticated than the prior example, but it lacks persuasive elements

and rationales that typically engage audiences more effectively.

Using rhetorical logic the most frequently in her ninth most-liked work titled You Need

To Calm Down, Swift (2019d) sings, “And we see you over there on the Internet / Comparing all

the girls who are killing it / But we figured you out / We all know now / We all got crowns / You

need to calm down” (lines 44-49). These lyrics exemplify rhetorical logic because the artist seeks

DISSERTATION

133

to persuade hateful people to mind their own business, uses intersubjective language, and creates

a desired context to stand up to bullies (Strekalova et al., 2017). This communication is goal-

oriented and rooted in persuasion, which is why all but three of Swift’s most-liked works exhibit

these elements. Reflecting on Look What You Made Me Do, Bad Blood, and You Need To Calm

Down, one can understand how Swift’s sophistication increases when she respectively utilizes

expressive logic, conventional logic, and rhetorical logic. Also, one can comprehend how Swift’s

ability to utilize all three logics is a communicative strength because the artist can discuss her

own personal feelings, consider societal expectations, and focus on objectives and desired

contexts.

Regarding the third research question, there are different rationales for why Swift uses

different logics about works related to happy romance, sad romance, and revenge. First, Swift

uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in works about happy romance because the musician

strives to accomplish her romantic goals, whether they are focused on her lovers or herself.

Second, Swift uses conventional logic the most frequently in works about sad romance because

the singer considers societal norms of breakups in present contexts, understanding that certain

relationships are irreparable. Third, Swift uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in works

about revenge because the artist attempts to retaliate against people who have wronged her and

create desired contexts.

Collectively, the fact that Swift’s works primarily feature communication about romantic

relationships, using regular prose, some literary devices, and pronouns to address people clearly,

means that the artist’s fans who integrate her communicative strategies into their real-life

conversations can elevate themselves to accomplish their personal or romantic goals with others.

Since Swift uses rhetorical logic the most frequently in her music videos, this result means that

DISSERTATION

134

listeners who view the works could learn about or be influenced by intersubjective

communication, desired contexts, and negotiation. Additionally, the fact that 70 percent of

Swift’s ten most-liked music videos use rhetorical logic means that people associated with the

field of communication, academically or professionally, should consider using this type of logic

in communicative works about personal relationships if they also have goals related to successful

popularity and audience engagement.

While the dissertation has not focused on Marshall McLuhan’s medium theory, the

scholarship is significant to consider in this discussion. Medium theory argues that “whatever

content is transmitted, media impacts individuals” (Littlejohn et al., 2021, p. 132). This concept

explains how individuals acquire knowledge to navigate through communicative exchanges and

how mediums unintentionally influence messages and people. McLuhan (2010) argues that

medium theory highlights how the medium is synonymous with the message, revealing that

songs, movies, and other outlets transform people’s beliefs and perceptions regardless of the

content associated with them. For example, people who scroll through social media applications

are impacted regardless of what they view, read, or watch. This concept illustrates a “model of

reality as a whole,” highlighting the makeup of the world and how individuals are unconsciously

impacted by mediums (Vidal, 2008, p. 4). Through listening to Swift’s music, audience members

are impacted consciously or unconsciously by an array of topics in the works, such as romance,

revenge, empowerment, bonds, and mental health. Having said that, Swift’s communicative

structures and interpretations of these topics can impact how others communicate about these

ideas.

Additionally, Crouch (2007) explains that if people want to create cultural

transformation, then they must “get into the midst of the human cultural project and create some

DISSERTATION

135

new cultural goods that reshape the way people imagine and experience their world” (p. 1). This

statement aligns with Swift (n.d.) because the artist is a meaning maker who has created

hundreds of works that provide people with helpful examples of situations that they might

experience in their own lives. After Swift releases creative works, audience members extend

created meaning, adding their own perceptions and interpretations to works (Crouch, 2007).

Having said that, many of Swift’s audience members research her songs, understand the original

contexts, and integrate the intended meanings into their own communication (Ceres, 2023).

Implications

There are various implications for this research project on Swift’s music videos and

O’Keefe’s message-design logics theory. First, this section will review the theoretical

implications, focusing on the validation, suitability, and precedent of the original theory. Second,

this section will consider the methodological implications, focusing on the new precedent

established by using non-traditional communication as part of the methodology. Then, this

section will review the implications on Craig’s seven traditions, focusing on the rhetorical,

phenomenological, semiotic, sociopsychological, and sociocultural traditions. Last, this section

will consider the implications related to theory, methodology, communication traditions, and

practicality.

Theoretical

The study has validated O’Keefe’s original findings on message-design logics theory

from the 1980s because Swift uses this type of logic the most frequently in her most-liked music

videos on YouTube, proving that rhetorical logic is the most sophisticated and effective in terms

of popularity. Swift’s works have also justified the suitability of using O’Keefe’s original

evaluative criteria for message-design logics theory for communication about personal

DISSERTATION

136

relationships because the musician’s stanzas align with the different categorizations of logics

(1988). Reflecting on all of Swift’s music videos, the musician uses rhetorical logic the most

frequently, conventional logic the second most frequently, and expressive logic the least

frequently. These results suggest that people’s communication about personal relationships

becomes stronger in terms of context and sophistication as individuals progress from using

expressive logic to conventional logic to rhetorical logic. For social norms, some theoretical

implication are that communication about happy romance tends to utilize rhetorical logic because

the messaging is focused on maintaining the success of relationships and that communication

about sad romance tends to use conventional logic because the messaging is focused on social

norms and present contexts of separations, as opposed to methods of repairing issues.

Considering the results of this dissertation with studies on personal relationships with

message-design logics theory included in the literature review by Hullman (2004), Hullman and

Behbehani (2018), and White et al. (2014), there is an even number of projects that have found

conventional logic and rhetorical logic to be the most used and most popular. This statistic is

significant because it illustrates a lack of consensus about the usages and popularity of the logics

within the different contexts of personal relationships. Given this data, there is a need to conduct

more research on communication within personal relationships, particularly about the topics and

themes discovered in the dissertation through the lens of message-design logics theory, as has

been done with topics related to health, business, and politics.

Methodological

Methodologically, this project has provided precedent for using non-traditional methods

of communication in scholarly research. As mentioned earlier, this study is the first one to

consider song lyrics that are communication centered with the components of message-design

DISSERTATION

137

logics theory. Instead of making participants create prose or analyze the effectiveness of prose,

this project has examined existing communication from song lyrics that are frequently addressed

to specific people. Having said that, this dissertation details how scholars can apply message-

design logics theory to lyrics about personal relationships by different artists, to poetry, and to

other non-traditional methods of communication. Likewise, this study provides a template for

how researchers can analyze topics, themes, logics, and rationales holistically about personal

communication. For social norms, a methodological implication is that scholars can utilize social

media metrics, such as likes, and lyrics from creative, autobiographical works as their main

datapoints to make arguments about the three types of logics, one of which being about societal

expectations.

Communication Traditions

There are several implications that this dissertation has on Craig’s seven traditions. First,

this dissertation has impacted the rhetorical tradition because Swift’s works highlight how

creative projects can communicate ideas strategically to accomplish goals with well-crafted

phrasing and contexts. Second, this project has influenced the phenomenological tradition

because Swift’s works show how they have created a category all their own that enable people to

bond and share commonalities. Third, this dissertation has impacted the semiotic tradition

because Swift’s works showcase how creative pieces can require intersubjective mediation that

takes place at different times. Also, this project has affected the sociopsychological tradition

because Swift’s works reveal how creative projects are rooted in biases, feelings, and

personalities that influence expression and persuasion. Last, this dissertation has altered the

sociocultural tradition because Swift’s works illustrate how creative projects are rooted in social

norms and must maintain communication coordination to be successful.

DISSERTATION

138

Practical

Based on the subject matter analyzed for the research questions, Swift’s lyrics and uses of

logics should be taught in communication courses about personal relationships because they

pertain to topics that are often neglected in communication academia, such as the ones analyzed

in the project, including happy romance, sad romance, empowerment, and revenge. Also, Swift’s

music videos should be integrated into curriculums because they are examples of communication

situations related to real-life personal matters, have been viewed billions of times, and do not

include any vulgarities or inappropriate subject matter. Considering social norms, a practical

implication is that Swift’s interpretations or beliefs of societal expectations could influence the

audience and their real-life communication engagements. Likewise, Swift’s visualizations should

be taught in communication courses because they seamlessly connect to the words of the works

and could educate people on creative strategies that enable ubiquitous content. Since Swift’s

works influence people’s personal communication, such as with romantic relationships

(Atkinson, 2022; Ceres, 2023), and people’s professional communication, such as with

Republicans and Democrats integrating Swift’s lyrics into their real-life communication in a U.S.

Senate hearing (Quinn, 2023), it is necessary to acknowledge the impact that Swift has had on

the communication of millions of people around the world. This influence also justifies the need

to integrate Swift’s content into the curriculum of interpersonal and intrapersonal communication

courses.

Delimitations and Limitations

There were several delimitations for the project, including the communication data points

analyzed and the theory used. One boundary for the project was to narrow the scope of Swift’s

discography, focusing on 45 works that were made into music videos and excluding

DISSERTATION

139

approximately 180 works that were not made into visual presentations. This decision was made

because it would have been unrealistic to examine over 200 works given the time barriers and

because it helped strengthen the analysis of content and results. Having said that, the project only

examined Swift’s music videos, starting with the musician’s first released work in 2006 and

ending with the singer’s most recent music videos in late 2022, the period when the project was

generated. Another boundary for the project was rooting the methodology partially with

message-design logics theory. This theory was the most appropriate for the project because

Swift’s songs focus primarily on personal feelings, societal norms, and objectives, which are

core components of the scholarship. Also, this theory helped reveal what types of messages are

the most popular by correlating the uses of logics to Swift’s YouTube metrics for the individual

music videos from 2006 to 2022.

Additionally, several limitations impacted the final draft of the project. One limitation

involved the images of the music videos that could not be placed directly into the dissertation as

exhibits because of copyright laws and Liberty University rules. This issue was not a major

concern because the links to Swift’s 45 music videos were included in the dissertation in a chart.

Another limitation involved the sample size of the project, including all of Swift’s music videos

but excluding all of Swift’s works that were not made into visual presentations. This decision

was made to focus on one aspect of Swift’s discography, which heavily influences people’s real-

life communication decisions. However, the results do not consider the subject matter, themes,

and logics of approximately 180 songs by Swift, which could differ from the music videos.

Future Research

The purpose of this qualitative study on Swift’s music videos was to comprehend content

that influences people’s real-life communication strategies and to understand which use of logic

DISSERTATION

140

makes works about personal relationships the most popular. The following recommendations

provide insight for future research and the progression of this communication topic.

First, a qualitative study on Swift’s communication usages in her documentary would be

beneficial because it could confirm or refute the patterns developed in this dissertation. A

random number generator could be utilized to determine which parts of the documentary to

analyze. For methodological purposes, this future research would contribute to the

communication field because it could add to precedent for analyzing communicative patterns and

logics within informative, creative works. Second, a mixed-methods study on this topic with

human participants would be beneficial because it could illustrate the real-life effects on people’s

communication decisions from Swift’s music videos or works. A future project could seek to

examine survey responses from Swift’s listeners, inquiring about if they integrate the musician’s

lyrics directly or indirectly into conversations, if they act on and vocalize their feelings or

opinions to someone because of the singer’s encouragement or advice, and if they attribute their

communication styles in certain situations to Swift. For theoretical purposes, this future research

would contribute to the scholarship on message-design logics theory because it could reveal how

influential people impact individuals’ communication, especially their uses of expressive,

conventional, and rhetorical logics. Another future project could seek to analyze TikTok videos

of people communicating situations with Swift’s music, statements, or nonverbal mannerisms

because there have not been many studies linking reimaginations of works to real-life

communication on social media applications. For practical purposes, this future research would

be beneficial for the communication field because the results of the study could influence how

TikTokers create their content, how scholars examine the influence of the new platform, and how

marketers place music into their videos.

DISSERTATION

141

Summary

The purpose of this qualitative study on Swift’s music videos was to comprehend content

that influences people’s real-life communication strategies and to understand which use of logic

makes works about personal relationships the most popular. This purpose was relevant because it

helped discover structures of messages that are popular and pertain to different situations within

personal relationships by an award-winning artist and director. One significance of the study was

that it would provide more understanding for the limited and inconsistent scholarship on personal

relationships with message-design logics theory, which is important because the data can help

communication scholars recognize which logics make content about personal relationships the

most popular. Another significance of the study involved the influence of Swift’s music on

people’s real-life experiences that pertain to communication. Collectively, this project has

examined Swift’s 45 music videos to accomplish the purpose and to contribute to a specific

subject matter that has never been conducted in the communication discipline. This chapter has

included the overview, summary of results, discussion, implications, delimitations and

limitations, future research, and the summary.

DISSERTATION

142

References

Ahlgrim, C. (2022, October 25). Taylor Swift’s Bejeweled music video is full of Easter eggs and

cameos – here’s every detail you may have missed. Insider.

https://africa.businessinsider.com/entertainment/taylor-swifts-bejeweled-music-video-is-

full-of-easter-eggs-and-cameos-heres-every/gp3mdj7

Allgaier, J. (2013). On the shoulders of YouTube: Science in music videos. Science

Communication, 35(2), 266–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547012454949

Alvarez-Mon, M. A., Asunsolo Del Barco, A., Lahera, G., Quintero, J., Ferre, F., Pereira-

Sanchez, V., Ortuño, F., & Alvarez-Mon, M. (2018). Increasing interest of mass

communication media and the general public in the distribution of Tweets about mental

disorders: Observational study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 20(5), e205.

https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.9582

Apple Music. (2006, October 24). Taylor Swift. Apple Music.

https://music.apple.com/us/album/taylor-swift-bonus-track-version/1440913923

Apple Music. (2008, January 1). Fearless. Apple Music.

https://music.apple.com/us/album/fearless/1440924803

Apple Music. (2010, January 1). Speak Now. Apple Music.

https://music.apple.com/us/album/speak-now/1440920310

Apple Music. (2012, January 1). Red. Apple Music.

https://music.apple.com/us/album/red/1440935340

Apple Music. (2014, October 27). 1989. Apple Music.

https://music.apple.com/us/album/1989/1440935467

Apple Music. (2017, November 10). reputation. Apple Music.

DISSERTATION

143

https://music.apple.com/us/album/reputation/1440933849

Apple Music. (2019, August 23). Lover. Apple Music.

https://music.apple.com/us/album/lover/1468058165

Apple Music. (2020b, July 24). folklore. Apple Music.

https://music.apple.com/us/album/folklore/1524801260

Apple Music. (2020a, December 11). evermore. Apple Music.

https://music.apple.com/us/album/evermore/1544268281

Apple Music. (2022, October 21). Midnights. Apple Music.

https://music.apple.com/us/album/midnights-3am-edition/1650841512

Arriaza Ibarra, K. (2019). Global perspectives on the #MeToo Movement: From “big noise” to

“discrete oblivion?” Interactions: Studies in Communication & Culture, 10(3), 153–158.

https://doi.org/10.1386/iscc.10.3.153_2

Atkinson, E. (2022, July 5). Speak Now: 5 internal comms lessons from Taylor Swift. Ragan

Communications. https://www.ragan.com/speak-now-5-internal-comms-lessons-from-

taylor-swift/

Baek, Y. M. (2015). Relationship between cultural distance and cross-cultural music video

consumption on YouTube. Social Science Computer Review, 33(6), 730–748.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439314562184

Bailey, A. (2020a, July 24). Taylor Swift’s cardigan lyrics seem to be an intimate look at her

three-year romance with Joe Alwyn. Elle.

https://www.elle.com/culture/music/a33408497/taylor-swift-cardigan-lyrics-joe-alwyn-

meaning/

Bailey, A. (2020b, December 11). Taylor Swift’s willow lyrics capture what it’s like to want

DISSERTATION

144

someone. Elle. https://www.elle.com/culture/music/a34942552/taylor-swift-willow-

lyrics-meaning/

Barbour, J., Jacocks, C., & Wesner, K. (2013). The message design logics of organizational

change. Communication Monographs, 80(3), 354–378.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2013.788251

Barton, M. H., & Stein, K. A. (2017). Diabetes, patient care & compliance: The role of message

design in doctor-patient interactions. Pennsylvania Communication Annual, 73(1), 11–26.

Beasley, R. E., & Chuang, Y. (2006). The effects of web-based American music, lyrics,

definitions, and explanations on Taiwanese ESL learners. Journal of Educational

Technology Systems, 34(4), 461–471.

Billboard. (2017, September 6). Taylor Swift’s boyfriend timeline. Billboard.

https://www.billboard.com/photos/taylor-swifts-boyfriend-timeline-12-relationships-

their-songs/

Canavan, B., & McCamley, C. (2020). The passing of the postmodern in pop? Epochal

consumption and marketing from Madonna, through Gaga, to Taylor. Journal of Business

Research, 107, 222–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.12.005

Caughlin, J. P., Brashers, D. E., Ramey, M. E., Kosenko, K. A., Donovan-Kicken, E., & Bute, J.

J. (2008). The message design logics of responses to HIV disclosures. Human

Communication Research, 34(4), 655–684. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-

2958.2008.00336.x

Ceres, P. (2023, February 3). Quoting Taylor Swift lyrics is an actual linguistic thing. Wired.

https://www.wired.com/story/taylor-swift-lyrics-senate-linguistics-fanilect/

Chiu, M. (2020, March 21). Taylor Swift fans feel vindicated after leaked video while Kayne

DISSERTATION

145

West supporters call feud old news. People. https://people.com/music/taylor-swift-fans-

feel-vindicated-after-leaked-phone-call-video/

Concert Archives. (2023). Taylor Swift concert history. Concert Archives.

https://www.concertarchives.org/bands/taylor-swift--2

Cortes, C., Larson, C., & Hample, D. (2005). Relations among message design logic,

interpersonal construct differentiation, and sex for Mexican and US Nationals. Journal of

Intercultural Communication Research, 34(1/2), 108–118.

Courtois, C., Mechant, P., Ostyn, V., & De Marez, L. (2013). Uploaders’ definition of the

networked public on YouTube and their feedback preferences: A multi-method

approach. Behaviour & Information Technology, 32(6), 612–624.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2011.586727

Craig, R. T. (1999). Communication theory as a field. International Communication Association,

9(2), 119-161. https://academic.oup.com/ct/article/9/2/119/4201776

Cranwell, J., Britton, J., & Bains, M. (2017). Let’s get to drinking-poison our livers: A thematic

analysis of alcohol content in contemporary YouTube music videos. International

Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 24(1), 66–76.

Cranwell, J., Murray, R., Lewis, S., Leonardi-Bee, J., Dockrell, M., & Britton, J. (2015).

Adolescents’ exposure to tobacco and alcohol content in YouTube music

videos. Addiction, 110(4), 703–711. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12835

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed

methods approaches (5th edition). Sage.

Crouch, A. (2007). Being culture makers. Andy Crouch.

https://andy-crouch.com/articles/being_culture_makers

DISSERTATION

146

Cullen, S. (2016). The innocent and the runaway: Kanye West, Taylor Swift, and the cultural

politics of racial melodrama. Journal of Popular Music Studies (Wiley-Blackwell), 28(1),

33–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpms.12160

Deuze, M. (2020). The role of media and mass communication theory in the global

pandemic. Communication Today, 11(2), 4–16.

Ditum, S. (2022, October 9). Taylor Swift: The Bob Dylan of our age. The Times.

https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/taylor-swift-the-bob-dylan-of-our-age-pmlg5m7hl

Dlaske, K. (2017). Music video covers, minoritised languages, and affective investments in the

space of YouTube. Language in Society, 46(4), 451–475.

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404517000549

Dresdale, A. (2021). Taylor Swift says she wrote Love Story because she’s a hopeless romantic.

ABC News Radio. http://abcnewsradioonline.com/music-news/2021/2/23/taylor-swift-

says-she-wrote-love-story-because-shes-a-hopele.html

Driessen, S. (2022a). Campaign problems: How fans react to Taylor Swift’s controversial

political awakening. American Behavioral Scientist, 66(8), 1060–1074.

https://doi.org/10.1177/00027642211042295

Dubrofsky, R. E. (2016). A Vernacular of surveillance: Taylor Swift and Miley Cyrus perform

white authenticity. Surveillance & Society, 14(2), 184–196.

https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v14i2.6022

Edwards, A., Edwards, C., & Gambino, A. (2020). The social pragmatics of communication with

social robots: Effects of robot message design logic in a regulative context. International

Journal of Social Robotics, 12(4), 945–957. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12369-019-00538-7

Edwards, A. P., Rose, L. M., Edwards, C., & Singer, L. M. (2008). An investigation of the

DISSERTATION

147

relationships among implicit personal theories of communication, social support and

loneliness. Human Communication, 11(4), 445–461.

Edwards, A., & Shepherd, G. (2007). An investigation of the relationship between implicit

personal theories of communication and community behavior. Communication

Studies, 58(4), 359–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510970701648574

Espada, M. (2023, July 7). Taylor Swift is halfway through her rerecording project. It’s paid off

big time. Time. https://time.com/6292599/taylor-swift-speak-now-rerecord-project/

Fogarty, M., & Arnold, G. (2021). Are you ready for it? Re-evaluating Taylor

Swift. Contemporary Music Review, 40(1), 1–10.

https://doi.org/10.1080/07494467.2021.1976586

Folbre, N. (2023). Telling fortunes: Feminist theory and the future of political economy. Review

of Political Economy, 35(1), 129–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/09538259.2023.2146379

Franssen, G. (2022). Policing the celebrity of Taylor Swift: introduction. Celebrity

Studies, 13(1), 90–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/19392397.2022.2026148

Garrido, S., & Schubert, E. (2011). Negative emotion in music: What is the attraction? A

qualitative study. Empirical Musicology Review, 6(4), 214–230.

https://doi.org/10.18061/1811/52950

Grammy Awards. (n.d.). Taylor Swift. Grammy Awards.

https://www.grammy.com/artists/taylor-swift/15450

Grein, P. (n.d.). Taylor Swift is first artist to achieve these VMAs feats, plus other 2022 record

setters. Billboard. https://www.billboard.com/lists/taylor-swift-bad-bunny-records-set-

2022-mtv-vmas/bad-bunny-2/

Haenlein, M., Anadol, E., Farnsworth, T., Hugo, H., Hunichen, J., & Welte, D. (2020).

DISSERTATION

148

Navigating the new era of influencer marketing: How to be successful on Instagram,

TikTok, & co. California Management Review, 63(1), 5–25.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0008125620958166

Hample, D., & Dallinger, J. M. (1991). Message design logic, goal structure, interpersonal

construct differentiation, and situation. Conference Proceedings -- National

Communication Association/American Forensic Association, 188–192.

Herold, K., Rudloff, J., & Whitfield, S. (1996). The impact of mood on message formulation: A

study of emotion and message design logic. World Communication, 25(3), 125-131.

Hodak, B. (2019, August 23). Why Lover track The Man is the most important song Taylor Swift

has ever written. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/brittanyhodak/2019/08/23/lover-

offers-the-most-important-song-taylor-swift-has-ever-written/?sh=5bfb1d5984d8

Hullman, G. A., & Behbehani, A. (2018). Message design logic, tactics, and message goals of

first and second requests in romantic relationships. Northwest Journal of

Communication, 46(1), 9–32.

Hullman, G. A. (2004). Interpersonal communication motives and message design logic:

Exploring their interaction on perceptions of competence. Communication

Monographs, 71(2), 208–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/0363775042000250411

Irvin, J. (2022, November 17). Ticketmaster cancels Taylor Swift Eras Tour general ticket sale

after extraordinarily high demands. People. https://people.com/music/ticketmaster-

cancels-taylor-swifts-eras-tour-general-ticket-sales/

Isaksen, J. L., & Eltantawy, N. (2021). What happens when a celebrity feminist slings

microaggressive shade? Twitter and the pushback against neoliberal feminism. Celebrity

Studies, 12(4), 549–564. https://doi.org/10.1080/19392397.2019.1678229

DISSERTATION

149

Jackson, J. O. (2022). Searching for soul, reframing the pursuit of capital: A comparison of

Kahlil Joseph’s and Derek Pike’s I Need A Dollar music videos. Music, Sound & the

Moving Image, 16(1), 53–77. https://doi.org/10.3828/msmi.2022.3

Jakubowska, E., & Bogdanowska, N. (2021). Addressing the other in Poland (the 20th and 21st

centuries): Different times, different contexts, different meanings. Journal of

Pragmatics, 178, 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2021.03.015

Jaramillo, M., & Solano, L. (2019). YouTube English music videos as educational resource to

teach vocabulary and improve the listening and speaking skills. Claves de Pensamiento

Contemporáneo, 22(1), 103–106.

Johnson, A. (2021). Copyrighting TikTok dances: Choreography in the internet age. Washington

Law Review, 96(3), 1225–1274.

Kampf, Z., & David, Y. (2019). Too good to be true: The effect of conciliatory message design

on compromising attitudes in intractable conflicts. Discourse & Society, 30(3), 264–286.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926519828030

Kennedy, M. (2020). “If the rise of the TikTok dance and e-girl aesthetic has taught us anything,

it’s that teenage girls rule the internet right now: TikTok celebrity, girls and the

Coronavirus crisis. European Journal of Cultural Studies., 23(6), 1069–1076.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1367549420945341

Kozman, C., Selim, A., & Farhat, S. (2021). Sexual objectification and gender display in Arabic

music videos. Sexuality & Culture, 25(5), 1742–1760. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-

021-09847-4

Krebs, N. D. (2022). Taylor Swift and Kanye West enter the arena: Celebrity politicians and the

rise of frontier aesthetics. Celebrity Studies, 13(1), 97–101.

DISSERTATION

150

https://doi.org/10.1080/19392397.2021.2017743

Lambert, B. L., & Gillespie, J. L. (1994). Patient perceptions of pharmacy students’ hypertension

compliance-gaining messages: Effects of message design logic and content

themes. Health Communication, 6(4), 311. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327027hc0604_6

Lando, H. A., Hipple, B. J., Muramoto, M., Klein, J. D., Prokhorov, A. V., Ossip, D. J., &

Winickoff, J. P. (2010). Tobacco control and children: An international

perspective. Pediatric allergy, immunology, and pulmonology, 23(2), 99–103.

https://doi.org/10.1089/ped.2010.0012

Lang, C. (2019, July 17). A comprehensive guide to the Taylor Swift-Katy Perry Feud. Time.

https://time.com/4914066/taylor-swift-katy-perry-feud-timeline/

Lima, H. B., Dos-Santos, C. G. R., & Meiguins, B. S. (2022). A survey of music visualization

techniques. ACM Computing Surveys, 54(7), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1145/3461835

Littlejohn, S. W., Foss, K. A., & Oetzel, J. G. (2021). Theories of human communication (12th

ed.). Waveland Press.

Madani, D. (2022, January 24). Taylor Swift slams Blur frontman’s claim that she doesn’t write

her own songs. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/pop-culture/pop-culture-

news/taylor-swift-slams-claim-doesnt-write-songs-false-damaging-rcna13381

Maguire, K. C. (2006). Making sense of the seven communication traditions. Communication

Teacher, 20(4), 89-92. https://doi-org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.1080/17404620601014708

Malinak, E. (2023, June 19). Despite breaking records in the city, what else did Taylor Swift do

for Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh Magazine. https://www.pittsburghmagazine.com/despite-

breaking-records-in-the-city-what-else-did-taylor-swift-do-for-pittsburgh/

Mamo, H. (2021, January 21). Here’s why Tim McGraw felt a little apprehensive about Taylor

DISSERTATION

151

Swift’s song named after him. Billboard. https://www.billboard.com/music/country/tim-

mcgraw-taylor-swift-song-named-after-him-reaction-9514440/

McLuhan, M. (2010). The medium and the light: Reflections on religion (E. McLuhan & J.

Szklarek 2nd ed.). Wipf and Stock Publishers. (Original work published 1999).

Merzdorf, J., Pfeiffer, L. J., & Forbes, B. (2019). Heated discussion: Strategies for

communicating climate change in a polarized era. Journal of Applied

Communications, 103(3), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.4148/1051-0834.2269

New King James Version Bible. (1982). Thomas Nelson.

New York University. (2022, May 26). NYU’s 2022 commencement speaker Taylor Swift

[YouTube channel]. YouTube. Retrieved January 23, 2023, from

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OBG50aoUwlI

Nisbett, G., & Schartel Dunn, S. (2021). Reputation matters: Parasocial attachment, narrative

engagement, and the 2018 Taylor Swift political endorsement. Atlantic Journal of

Communication, 29(1), 26–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2019.1704758

Ocaña, A. M., & Buslig, A. L. S. (2018). Chapter 2: Motivating compliance after conflict in a

group setting. At the Interface / Probing the Boundaries, 104, 36–55.

https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004373679_004

Oh, H. J., & LaRose, R. (2016). Impression management concerns and support-seeking behavior

on social network sites. Computers in Human Behavior, 57, 38–47.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.005

Oh, Y. K., & Choeh, J. Y. (2022). Social media engagements of music videos on YouTube’s

official artist channels. Convergence: The Journal of Research into New Media

Technologies, 28(3), 804–821. https://doi.org/10.1177/13548565211054906

DISSERTATION

152

O’Keefe, B. J., & Lambert, B. L. (1989). Effects of Message Design Logic on the

Communication of Intention, 1(1), 1-24.

O’Keefe, B. J. (1988). The logic of message design: Individual differences in reasoning about

communication. Communication Monographs, 55(1), 80-103.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03637758809376159

Özkent, Y. (2022). Social media usage to share information in communication journals: An

analysis of social media activity and article citations. PLoS ONE, 17(2), 1–11.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263725

Park, J. (2018). The effects of user engagements for user and company generated videos on

music sales: Empirical evidence from YouTube. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1880.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01880

Peterson, L. W., & Albrecht, T. L. (1996). Message design logic, social support, and mixed-

status relationships. Western Journal of Communication, 60(4), 291–309.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10570319609374551

Pignetti, D. (2020). “She’s a fan, but this was supposed to be scientific:” Fan misunderstandings

and acafan mistakes. Transformative Works & Cultures, 33, 1.

https://doi.org/10.3983/twc.2020.1763

Prins, A. (2020). From awkward teen girl to Aryan goddess meme: Taylor Swift and the

hijacking of star texts. Celebrity Studies, 11(1), 144–148.

https://doi.org/10.1080/19392397.2020.1704431

Quinn, M. (2023, January 24). Look what you made them do: All the Taylor Swift references

DISSERTATION

153

from the Senate’s Ticketmaster hearing. CBS News.

https://www.cbsnews.com/news/taylor-swift-ticketmaster-senate-judiciary-committee-

eras-tour/

Ransom, P. F. (2015). Message in the music: Do lyrics influence well-being? University of

Pennsylvania, 94(1), 1-43.

Ray, M. (2022, December 9). Taylor Swift. Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Taylor-Swift

Rizzo, P. (2021, March 24). Does Taylor Swift have siblings? The Sun.

https://www.the-sun.com/entertainment/2574786/does-taylor-swift-have-siblings-brother/

Rolling Stone. (2012, June 6). John Mayer. Rolling Stone.

https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/john-mayer-taylor-swifts-dear-john-

song-humiliated-me-107169/

Rucsanda, M., & Belibou, A. (2018). An exploratory investigation of aesthetic response to music

and musical preferences, based on YouTube music videos. Journal Plus Education,

21(1), 338–346.

Sanchez-Olmos, C., & Vinuela, E. (2017). The musicless music video as a spreadable meme

video: Format, user interaction, and meaning on YouTube. International Journal of

Communication, 11(1), 3634–3654.

Schneider, C. J. (2016). Music videos on YouTube: Exploring participatory culture on social

media. Studies in Symbolic Interaction, 47(1), 97–117. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0163-

239620160000047016

Scott, A., Caughlin, J., Donovan-Kicken, E., & Mikucki-Enyart, S. (2013). Do message features

influence responses to depression disclosure? A message design logics

DISSERTATION

154

perspective. Western Journal of Communication, 77(2), 139–163.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2012.694007

Sedeño-Valdellós, A., & Schubert, H. (2020). Product placement en el videoclip musical

mainstream: Análisis de los casos más visualizados en YouTube de 2015 a

2019. Estudios Sobre El Mensaje Periodistico, 26(4), 1599–1610.

https://doi.org/10.5209/esmp.69212

Sloan, N. (2021). Taylor Swift and the work of songwriting. Contemporary Music Review, 40(1),

11–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494467.2021.1945226

Stephens, K. K., Malone, P. C., & Bailey, C. M. (2005). Communicating with stakeholders

during a crisis. Journal of Business Communication, 42(4), 390–419.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0021943605279057

Stratton, J. (2021). Parodies for a pandemic: Coronavirus songs, creativity and

lockdown. Cultural Studies, 35(2/3), 412–431.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09502386.2021.1898035

Strekalova, Y. A., Krieger, J. L., Neil, J., Caughlin, J. P., Kleinheksel, A. J., & Kotranza, A.

(2017). I understand how you feel. Journal of Language & Social Psychology, 36(1), 61–

79. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X16663255

Swift, T. (n.d.). Home [YouTube channel]. YouTube. Retrieved December 9, 2022, from

https://www.youtube.com/c/TaylorSwift

Swift, T. (2023, March 17). The Eras Tour [Speech audio recording] TikTok.

https://www.tiktok.com/@cortcake/video/7211781235142610222

Swift, T. (2006a). I’m only me when I’m with you [Song]. On Taylor Swift. Big Machine

Records. https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/imonlymewhenimwithyou.html

DISSERTATION

155

Swift, T. (2006b). Our song [Song]. On Taylor Swift. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/oursong.html

Swift, T. (2006c). Picture to burn [Song]. On Taylor Swift. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/picturetoburn.html

Swift, T. (2006d). Teardrops on my guitar [Song]. On Taylor Swift. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/teardropsonmyguitar.html

Swift, T. (2006e). Tim McGraw [Song]. On Taylor Swift. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/timmcgraw.html

Swift, T. (2008a). Change [Song]. On Fearless. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/change.html

Swift, T. (2008b). Fearless [Song]. On Fearless. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/fearless.html

Swift, T. (2008c). Fifteen [Song]. On Fearless. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/fifteen.html

Swift, T. (2008d). Love story [Song]. On Fearless. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/lovestory.html

Swift, T. (2008e). The best day [Song]. On Fearless. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/thebestday.html

Swift, T. (2008f). White horse [Song]. On Fearless. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/whitehorse.html

Swift, T. (2008g). You belong with me [Song]. On Fearless. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/youbelongwithme.html

Swift, T. (2010a). Back to December [Song]. On Speak now. Big Machine Records.

DISSERTATION

156

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/backtodecember.html

Swift, T. (2010b). Mean [Song]. On Speak now. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/mean.html

Swift, T. (2010c). Mine [Song]. On Speak now. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/mine.html

Swift, T. (2010d). Ours [Song]. On Speak now. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/ours.html

Swift, T. (2010e). Sparks fly [Song]. On Speak now. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/sparksfly.html

Swift, T. (2010f). The story of us [Song]. On Speak now. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/thestoryofus.html

Swift, T. (2012a). 22 [Song]. On Red. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/22.html

Swift, T. (2012b). Begin again [Song]. On Red. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/beginagain.html

Swift, T. (2012c). Everything has changed [Song]. On Red. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/everythinghaschanged.html

Swift, T. (2012d). I knew you were trouble [Song]. On Red. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/iknewyouweretrouble.html

Swift, T. (2012e). Red [Song]. On Red. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/red.html

Swift, T. (2012f). The last time [Song]. On Red. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/thelasttime.html

DISSERTATION

157

Swift, T. (2012g). We are never ever getting back together [Song]. On Red. Big Machine

Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/weareneverevergettingbacktogether.html

Swift, T. (2014a). Bad blood [Song]. On 1989. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/badblood.html

Swift, T. (2014b). Blank space [Song]. On 1989. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/blankspace.html

Swift, T. (2014c). New romantics [Song]. On 1989. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/newromanticsmusicvideoversion.html

Swift, T. (2014d). Out of the woods [Song]. On 1989. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/outofthewoods.html

Swift, T. (2014e). Shake it off [Song]. On 1989. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/shakeitoff.html

Swift, T. (2014f). Style [Song]. On 1989. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/style.html

Swift, T. (2014g). Wildest dreams [Song]. On 1989. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/wildestdreams.html

Swift, T. (2017a). Delicate [Song]. On reputation. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/delicate.html

Swift, T. (2017b). End game [Song]. On reputation. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/endgame.html

Swift, T. (2017c). Look what you made me do [Song]. On reputation. Big Machine

Records. https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/lookwhatyoumademedo.html

DISSERTATION

158

Swift, T. (2017d). Ready for it [Song]. On reputation. Big Machine Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/readyforit.html

Swift, T. (2019a). Lover [Song]. On Lover. Republic Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/lover.html

Swift, T. (2019b). Me [Song]. On Lover. Republic Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/me.html

Swift, T. (2019c). The man [Song]. On Lover. Republic Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/theman.html

Swift, T. (2019d). You need to calm down [Song]. On Lover. Republic Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/youneedtocalmdown.html

Swift, T. (2020a). Cardigan [Song]. On folklore. Republic Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/cardigan.html

Swift, T. (2020b). Willow [Song]. On evermore. Republic Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/willow.html

Swift, T. (2021). I bet you think about me [Song]. On Red Taylor’s Version. Republic

Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/ibetyouthinkaboutmetaylorsversionfromtheva

ult.html

Swift, T. (2022a). Anti-hero [Song]. On Midnights. Republic Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/antihero.html

Swift, T. (2022b). Bejeweled [Song]. On Midnights. Republic Records.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/taylorswift/bejeweled.html

Terrell, S. R. (2016). Writing a proposal for your dissertation: Guidelines and examples. The

DISSERTATION

159

Guilford Press.

Today. (2010, October 10). Taylor Swift on the Today Show [video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pwd50XZOHIA

Trust, G. (2022, October 31). Taylor Swift makes history as first artist with entire top 10 on

Billboard hot 100, led by Anti-Hero at no. 1. Billboard.

https://www.billboard.com/music/chart-beat/taylor-swift-all-hot-100-top-10-anti-hero-

1235163664/

Vidal, C. (2008). What is a worldview? In H. V. Belle & J. V. D. Veken (Eds.), The sciences

and the creative aspect of reality (pp. 1-13). Acco.

Warner, C. D. (2013). Hope and sorrow: Uncivil religion, Tibetan music videos, and

YouTube. Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology, 78(4), 543–568.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00141844.2012.724433

White, C., & Malkowski, J. (2014). Communicative challenges of bystander intervention: Impact

of goals and message design logic on strategies college students use to intervene in

drinking situations. Health Communication, 29(1), 93–104.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2012.721335

Whitfield, K., & Johnson, A. E. (2019). Tyler Perry and the rhetoric of Madea: Contrasting

performances of Perry’s leading lady as she appears on stage and

screen. Religions, 10(7), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10070430

Xu, Y., Margolin, D., & Niederdeppe, J. (2021). Testing strategies to increase source credibility

through strategic message design in the context of vaccination and vaccine

hesitancy. Health Communication, 36(11), 1354–1367.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1751400

DISSERTATION

160

Appendix A

Links to Taylor Swift’s Music Videos

Music Video Title

Album Title

URL Link

Tim McGraw

Taylor Swift

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GkD20ajVxnY

Teardrops On My

Guitar

Taylor Swift

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xKCek6_dB0M

Our Song

Taylor Swift

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jb2stN7kH28

I’m Only Me When

I’m With You

Taylor Swift

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AlTfYj7q5gQ

Picture To Burn

Taylor Swift

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yCMqcFAigRg

Change

Fearless

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B1jYllE0T-k

Love Story

Fearless

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xg3vE8Ie_E

White Horse

Fearless

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1Xr-JFLxik

You Belong With Me

Fearless

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VuNIsY6JdUw

The Best Day

Fearless

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l4_6eQm7RTQ

Fifteen

Fearless

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pb-K2tXWK4w

Fearless

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptSjNWnzpjg

Mine

Speak Now

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XPBwXKgDTdE

Back to December

Speak Now

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QUwxKWT6m7U

Mean

Speak Now

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jYa1eI1hpDE

The Story of Us

Speak Now

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nN6VR92V70M

Sparks Fly

Speak Now

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oKar-tF__ac

Ours

Speak Now

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZ34LlaIk88

We Are Never Ever

Getting Back

Together

Red

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WA4iX5D9Z64

Begin Again

Red

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cMPEd8m79Hw

I Knew You Were

Trouble

Red

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vNoKguSdy4Y

Red

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AgFeZr5ptV8

Everything Has

Changed

Red

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1oM3kQpXRo

Red

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zlot0i3Zykw

The Last Time

Red

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QuijXg8wm28

Shake It Off

1989

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfWlot6h_JM

Blank Space

1989

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e-ORhEE9VVg

Style

1989

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-CmadmM5cOk

Bad Blood

1989

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QcIy9NiNbmo

Wildest Dreams

1989

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IdneKLhsWOQ

Out of the Woods

1989

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JLf9q36UsBk

New Romantics

1989

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wyK7YuwUWsU

Look What You

Made Me Do

reputation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3tmd-ClpJxA

DISSERTATION

161

Ready For It?

reputation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wIft-t-MQuE

End Game

reputation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dfnCAmr569k

Delicate

reputation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tCXGJQYZ9JA

ME!

Lover

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FuXNumBwDOM

You Need To Calm

Down

Lover

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dkk9gvTmCXY

Lover

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-BjZmE2gtdo

The Man

Lover

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AqAJLh9wuZ0

cardigan

folklore

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K-a8s8OLBSE

willow

evermore

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RsEZmictANA

I Bet You Think

About Me

Red (TS)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5UMCrq-bBCg

Anti-Hero

Midnights

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b1kbLwvqugk

Bejeweled

Midnights

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b7QlX3yR2xs

(Swift, n.d.)

DISSERTATION

162

Appendix B

Data Collected on Swift’s Music Videos about Message-Design Logics Theory

E = Expressive Logic

C = Conventional Logic

R = Rhetorical Logic

Tim McGraw

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Teardrops On My Guitar

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Our Song

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

163

I’m Only Me When I’m With You

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Picture To Burn

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Change

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

164

Love Story

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

White Horse

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

You Belong With Me

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

165

The Best Day

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Fifteen

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Fearless

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

166

Mine

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Back to December

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Mean

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

167

The Story of Us

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Sparks Fly

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Ours

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

168

We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Begin Again

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

I Knew You Were Trouble

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

169

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Everything Has Changed

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Red

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

170

The Last Time

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Shake It Off

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Blank Space

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

171

Style

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Bad Blood

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Wildest Dreams

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

172

Out of the Woods

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

New Romantics

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Look What You Made Me Do

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

173

Ready For It?

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

End Game

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Delicate

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

174

ME!

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

You Need To Calm Down

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Lover

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

175

The Man

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

cardigan

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

willow

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

DISSERTATION

176

I Bet You Think About Me

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Anti-Hero

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic

Bejeweled

Stanzas

Majority Use of Logic